(concurring). I concur in the opinion of Judge R. B. Burns, but write separately to state my reasoning.

At issue in this case is the meaning of the constitutional prohibition of double jeopardy.1 Double jeopardy has three different aspects: it bars a second prosecution for the same offense after acquittal, it bars a second prosecution for the same offense after conviction, and it protects against multiple punishment for the same offense. North Carolina v Pearce, 395 US 711; 89 S Ct 2072; 23 L Ed 2d 656 (1969).2

*684It is the last protection — that against multiple punishment — with which we are here concerned.

My research has revealed that much of the discussion of the constitutional prohibition on multiple punishment fails to satisfactorily explicate the underpinnings of that protection. See Note: Twice in Jeopardy, 75 Yale LJ 262 (1965). The courts have failed to address the vital question: why is it wrong to cumulate punishment? Id. at 301.3

The protection against multiple punishment is a restraint on courts and prosecutors. Brown v Ohio, 432 US 161; 97 S Ct 2221; 53 L Ed 2d 187 (1977).4 Note, supra, at 304-308. This is because the Legislature is the proper institution to define offenses and provide for their punishment. The Legislature often provides for different statutory offenses which could apply to the same act. In such a case, the prohibition on multiple punishment prevents courts from cumulating punishment where it ap*685pears that the Legislature did not intend that the defendant be cumulatively punished. See Gore v United States, 357 US 386; 78 S Ct 1280; 2 L Ed 2d 1405 (1958). As an aid to ascertaining the Legislature’s intent, courts have applied certain rules of construction. For example, it is presumed that the Legislature did not intend to punish cumulatively a greater and necessarily included offense. Kirchheimer, The Act, the Offense and Double Jeopardy, 58 Yale LJ 513 (1949); Note, supra, at 318-319. In short, a "rule of lenity” prohibits multiple punishment where the legislative intent is unclear or doubtful. See People v Nelson, 79 Mich App 303; 261 NW2d 299 (1977).

Where the legislative intent regarding punishment is clear, however, there is no multiple punishment problem. Cf. People v Nelson, supra. The danger against which the constitutional prohibition is directed is not present; the court is not multiplying punishment.

In the case at bar, the Legislature has provided, in clear and unmistakable terms, for two convictions and a minimum two-year sentence where a person commits or attempts to commit a felony while in possession of a firearm. Because the legislative intent is clear, there can be no multiple punishment problem; there is no possibility of the court cumulating punishment. Vacating a conviction in this case would undermine the acknowledged function of the Legislature: to define and set the punishment for offenses. It cannot be contended that an individual needs constitutional double jeopardy protection against the Legislature’s clear exercise of its proper penological function.5

*686This is not, as the dissent asserts, a case of the court abdicating its proper constitutional function. Rather, the problem is one of defining the constitutional protection against multiple punishment. I believe that protection only prevents the courts and prosecutors from multiplying punishment absent a clear legislative directive prescribing punishment. Where the statutory scheme evidences a clear legislative intent that a defendant be punished under separate statutes, there is no multiple punishment problem. Thus, it is illogical to speak of the court abandoning its function by deferring to the Legislature where the Legislature’s intent is manifest.

Thus, I agree that both convictions should be affirmed in the case at bar.

I also believe that two aspects of the dissent deserve comment.

First, the dissent, applying the Blockburger6 test, finds that armed robbery and felony-firearm are the "same offense”. I disagree.

Under Blockburger, two statutory provisions define different offenses if: "each statute requires proof of an additional fact which the other does not”. 284 US at 304 (emphasis added). Clearly, felony-firearm requires proof of a fact not required to convict of armed robbery: possession of a firearm. Armed robbery also requires the proof of facts not required for conviction of felony-firearm, e.g., a robbery. A robbery need not be proved to establish a felony-firearm violation; any felony will *687suffice. Therefore, I would find that armed robbery and felony-firearm are not the "same offense” under Federal constitutional law.

The Michigan Supreme Court, in People v Stewart (On Rehearing), 400 Mich 540; 256 NW2d 31 (1977), and People v Martin, 398 Mich 303; 247 NW2d 303 (1976), held that a defendant may not be convicted, of two crimes where, on the facts of the particular case, the trier of fact must necessarily find him guilty of one in order to find him guilty of the other. People v Terry Alexander, 82 Mich App 621; 267 NW2d 466 (1978). However, those cases were decided in the context of convictions for possession and sale or delivery of heroin. As there was no contention that the Legislature intended two convictions for these offenses, the Court’s omission of reference to legislative intent is understandable. Martin and Stewart thus apply to cases in which there is no express legislative intent to allow multiple conviction. Those cases do not apply to the case at bar, where that intent is explicit.

Second, the dissent hints that Michigan courts interpret the Michigan constitutional protection against multiple punishment more restrictively than its substantially similar Federal counterpart. I agree that Martin and Stewart appear to go beyond the Blockburger rule. However, where the intent of the Legislature is clear, I can ascertain no identifiable state policy mandating a more restrictive interpretation of the double jeopardy clause.

(dissenting). I must dissent from the majority holding that the application of the felony-firearm statute, MCL 750.227b; MSA 28.424(2), in this case does not violate the double *688jeopardy clauses of the United States and Michigan Constitutions.

The pertinent statutory provision is as follows:

"Sec. 227b. (1) A person who carries or has in his possession a firearm at the time he commits or attempts to commit a felony, except the violation of section 227 or section 227a,1 is guilty of a felony, and shall be imprisoned for 2 years. Upon a second conviction under this section, the person shall be imprisoned for 5 years. Upon a third or subsequent conviction under this section, the person shall be imprisoned for 10 years.

"(2) The term of imprisonment prescribed by this section shall be in addition to the sentence imposed for the conviction of the felony or the attempt to commit the felony, and shall be served consecutively with and preceding any term of imprisonment imposed for the conviction of the felony or attempt to commit the felony.

"(3) The term of imprisonment imposed under this section shall not be suspended. The person subject to the sentence mandated by this section shall not be eligible for parole or probation during the mandatory term imposed pursuant to subsection (1).” (Footnote added.)

In order to convict a defendant under this statute, it must first be demonstrated that he committed or attempted to commit a felony. By definition that felony is a lesser included offense of the felony-firearm violation because it is impossible to commit the latter without committing the former. People v Ora Jones, 395 Mich 379; 236 NW2d 461 (1975). That much apparently is conceded by the majority opinion. For the reasons hereinafter stated I would hold that it inescapably follows that conviction and sentencing for both the felony-firearm violation and for the underlying felony is *689precluded by the double jeopardy provisions of both the Federal and the Michigan Constitutions.

I.

Analysis of this issue requires a two-step inquiry. We must first determine whether the Legislature intended cumulative conviction and punishment under both statutory provisions. It is only if this preliminary inquiry is answered in the affirmative that we need consider whether effectuation of that intent violates the constitutional prohibition against multiple punishment for the "same offense”. Simpson v United States, 435 US 6; 98 S Ct 909; 55 L Ed 2d 70 (1978). In this case an affirmative answer to the first question is clear on the face of the felony-firearm statute. We must, therefore, determine the constitutional propriety of the Legislature’s intended result.

The Federal constitution provides in pertinent part:

" * * * [N]or shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb * * * ” US Const, Am V.

That provision protects against multiple punishment for the same offense. Simpson, supra, Jeffers v United States, 432 US 137; 97 S Ct 2207; 53 L Ed 2d 168 (1977), North Carolina v Pearce, 395 US 711; 89 S Ct 2072; 23 L Ed 2d 656 (1969).

The test for determining whether two separately defined crimes constitute the "same offense” is the so-called Blockburger test. Simpson, supra, Brown v Ohio, 432 US 161; 97 S Ct 2221; 53 L Ed 2d 187 (1977).

"The applicable rule is that where the same act or *690transaction constitutes a violation of two distinct statutory provisions, the test to be applied to determine whether there are two offenses or only one, is whether each provision requires proof of an additional fact which the other does not.” Blockburger v United States, 284 US 299, 304; 52 S Ct 180, 182; 76 L Ed 306, 309 (1932). (Emphasis added.)

This test emphasizes the elements of the two crimes. Brown, supra. Unless the statutes involved satisfy that test the double jeopardy clause of the United States Constitution forbids cumulative punishment. Simpson, supra, Brown, supra.2 The Blockburger test has in fact been applied by courts squarely confronting the double jeopardy implications of statutes similar to the one before us. Kowalski v Parratt, 533 F Supp 1071 (CA 8, 1976), cert den 429 US 844; 97 S Ct 125; 50 L Ed 2d 115 (1976), State v Saxon, 193 Neb 278; 226 NW2d 765 (1975), Jones v Commonwealth, 218 Va 18; 235 SE2d 313 (1977).3

*691Applying Blockburger to the statutes before us I would conclude that the felony-firearm violation and the armed robbery upon which it was premised do not constitute "separate offenses”. Conviction for the armed robbery does not require proof of any facts unnecessary to the felony-firearm conviction because every element of the crime of armed robbery (or whatever felony applies in a given case) must also be proven to establish violation of the felony-firearm statute. Accordingly, I would hold that the cumulative punishment imposed by the statute violates the Federal constitutional prohibition against cumulative punishment for the "same offense”.

I must strongly disagree with the majority’s statement that the constitutionally guaranteed *692protection against double jeopardy "ultimately turns upon whether the Legislature intended a particular act to be punished by only one or more statutes”. (Emphasis added.)

First of all, to assert that the constitutionality of an act of the Legislature is to be determined by reference to the Legislature’s intent in enacting it, is to assert that the Legislature may limit the operation of the constitution. Certainly one of the most fundamental principles of constitutional government is that the constitution limits the power of the Legislature and not vice versa as the majority would seem to hold.

Secondly, United States Supreme Court decisions do not support the majority’s position. The pertinent case law stands for the proposition that legislative intent is considered in order to avoid, if possible, the constitutional issue, not to resolve it. The first question is always whether the Legislature intended the involved statutes to operate cumulatively. But that is the beginning of the inquiry, not the end of it. If cumulative application was intended, the statutes must be examined in order to determine whether they define the "same offense” within the meaning of the constitutional prohibition. Explication of this two step analysis was set forth in a recent case:

"In Blockburger v United States, 284 US 299, 76 L Ed 306, 52 S Ct 180 (1932), this Court set out the test for determining 'whether two offenses are sufficiently distinguishable to permit the imposition of cumulative punishment.’ Brown v Ohio, 432 US 161, 166, 53 L Ed 2d 187, 97 S Ct 2221 (1977). We held that '[t]he applicable rule is that where the same act or transaction constitutes a violation of two distinct statutory provisions, the test to be applied to determine whether there are two offenses or only one, is whether each provision requires proof of a fact which the other does not.’ *693Blockburger v United States, supra, at 304, 76 L Ed 306, 52 S Ct 180. See also Brown v Ohio, supra, at 166, 53 L Ed 2d 187, 97 S Ct 2221; Ianelli v United States, 420 US 770, 43 L Ed 2d 616, 95 S Ct 1284 (1975); Gore v United States, 357 US 386, 2 L Ed 2d 1405, 78 S Ct 1280 (1958). The Blockburger test has its primary relevance in the double jeopardy context, where it is a guide for determining when two separately defined crimes constitute the 'same offense’ for double jeopardy purposes. Brown v Ohio, supra.

"Cases in which the Government is able to prove violations of two separate criminal statutes with precisely the same factual showing, as here, raise the prospect of double jeopardy and the possible need to evaluate the statutes in light of the Blockburger test. That test, the Government argues, is satisfied in these cases. We need not reach the issue. Before an examination is made to determine whether cumulative punishments for the two offenses are constitutionally permissible, it is necessary, following our practice of avoiding constitutional decisions where possible, to determine whether Congress intended to subject the defendant to multiple penalties for the single criminal transaction in which he engaged. Jeffers v United States, 432 US 137, 155, 53 L Ed 2d 168, 97 S Ct 2207 (1977).” Simpson v United States, 435 US 6, 11-12; 98 S Ct 909, 912-913; 55 L Ed 2d 70, 75-76. (Emphasis added.) (Footnotes omitted.)

The majority’s constitutional analysis, therefore, is, in my judgment, devoid of any logical or legal support.4

*694II.

The Michigan Constitution provides in pertinent part:

"No person shall be subject for the same oifense to be twice put in jeopardy.” Const 1963, art 1, § 15.

That provision, like its Federal counterpart, protects against multiple punishment for the "same oifense”. People v Stewart (On Rehearing), 400 Mich 540; 256 NW2d 31 (1977), People v Martin, 398 Mich 303; 247 NW2d 303 (1976).

Although the Michigan double jeopardy clause is substantially identical to the double jeopardy clause of the United States Constitution in terms of the interests thereunder protected, in application, the Michigan Supreme Court has not hesitated to adopt more protective standards than those compelled by the Federal constitution. Compare People v White, 390 Mich 245; 212 NW2d 222 (1973) and People v Cooper, 398 Mich 450; 247 NW2d 866 (1976) with Brown v Ohio, 432 US 161; 97 S Ct 2221; 53 L Ed 2d 187 (1977) and Abbate v United States, 359 US 187; 79 S Ct 666; 3 L Ed 2d 729 (1959). Similarly, our Supreme Court recently has made it clear that where a defendant is convicted of two offenses, one of which is included in the other, the double jeopardy clause prohibits not only cumulative punishment but also conviction for both offenses.

"A defendant may be charged and tried for each act that constitutes a separate crime. However, when tried for an act which includes lesser offenses, if the jury *695finds guilt of the greater, the defendant may not also be convicted separately of the lesser included offense. The prohibition against multiple punishment for the same crime cannot be avoided by the form of the charge.” People v Martin, supra, at 309. (Emphasis added.)

In both Stewart and Martin the Supreme Court vacated convictions for lesser included offenses holding that they violated the double jeopardy prohibition against multiple punishment.

For purposes of the instant case it need not be decided whether Stewart and Martin extend the definition of included offenses to include those factually, although not legally, necessarily included in a greater charge. Compare People v Terry Alexander, 82 Mich App 621; 267 NW2d 466 (1978), with People v Risher, 78 Mich App 431; 260 NW2d 121 (1977). As I read Stewart and Martin, those cases at a minimum preclude conviction for both a greater offense and one legally necessarily included under People v Ora Jones, supra. See People v Wilder, 82 Mich App 358; 266 NW2d 847 (1978). Insofar as the underlying felony is necessarily included in the felony-firearm violation, I would hold that under the decisions of the Michigan Supreme Court, the double jeopardy clause of the Michigan Constitution prohibits conviction for both armed robbery and possession of a firearm in the course of that robbery.5 Because it is clear that *696the factual basis established the defendant’s guilt of both offenses I would vacate the conviction for the felony-firearm violation and the sentence therefor imposed. See, People v Stewart, supra, at 550, n 2.

I would affirm in part, and reverse in part.

Defendant pled guilty to robbery armed, MCL 750.529; MSA 28.797, and possession of a firearm during commission of a felony, MCL 750.227b; MSA 28.424(2), and appeals. We affirm.

Although defendant argues that he did not knowingly and understanding^ waive various constitutional rights before pleading guilty, the trial court complied with GCR 1963, 785.7. A knowing and understanding waiver was implicit in the plea procedure.

Defendant’s argument that the felony-firearm statute, MCL 750.227b; MSA 28.424(2), is unconstitutional because it amended a large number of *681statutes without re-enactment and publication, contrary to Const 1963, art 4, § 25, is without merit, since amendment by implication is. not the evil sought to be avoided by the constitutional provision. Advisory Opinion re Constitutionality of 1972 PA 294, 389 Mich 441, 471-474; 208 NW2d 469, 476-478 (1973).

Defendant also argues that his felony-firearm conviction must be set aside because it violates constitutional prohibitions against double jeopardy. US Const, Am V, Const 1963, art 1, § 15.

The double jeopardy clause1 provides that no person shall "be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy”.

"[The clause] serves principally as a restraint on courts and prosecutors. The legislature remains free under the [d]ouble [j]eopardy [c]lause to define crimes and fix punishments; but once the legislature has acted courts may not impose more than one punishment for the same offense and prosecutors ordinarily may not attempt to secure that punishment in more than one trial.” Brown v Ohio, 432 US 161, 165; 97 S Ct 2221, 2225; 53 L Ed 2d 187, 193-194 (1977).

Because many statutory crimes are duplicative, it is well established that separate statutory crimes may be the "same offense” under the double jeopardy clause, even though they are not identical in either constituent elements or actual proof. Brown v Ohio, supra, at 164; 97 S Ct at 2224; 53 L Ed 2d at 193. Each case ultimately turns upon whether the Legislature intended a particular act to be punished by only one or more statutes. See Gore v United States, 357 US 386; 78 S Ct 1280; 2 L Ed 2d 1405 (1958). Unfortunately, it *682is rarely possible to divine legislative intent in this area, as the multiple punishment issue rarely receives explicit legislative consideration. Gore v United States, supra, at 394; 78 S Ct at 1285; 2 L Ed 2d at 1411 (Warren, C. J., dissenting). As a consequence the courts have developed tests to determine whether separate statutory crimes are the "same offense”. See, e.g., Harris v Oklahoma, 433 US 682; 97 S Ct 2912; 53 L Ed 2d 1054 (1977), Brown v Ohio, supra, Blockburger v United States, 284 US 299; 52 S Ct 180; 76 L Ed 306 (1932), People v Stewart (On Rehearing), 400 Mich 540; 256 NW2d 31 (1977), People v Martin, 398 Mich 303; 247 NW2d 303 (1976).

Although it may be argued with some force that application of the above tests to the instant case would indicate the presence of a double jeopardy problem, but see, e.g., Kowalski v Parratt, 533 F2d 1071 (CA 8, 1976), cert den 429 US 844; 97 S Ct 125; 50 L Ed 2d 115 (1976), resort need not be had to the tests where the legislative intent is, as here, apparent.

The statute applies by its terms to all felonies except those explicitly excluded.

"A person who carries or has in his possession a firearm at the time he commits or attempts to commit a felony, except the violation of section 227 [MCLA 750.227; MSA 28.424 — carrying a concealed weapon] or section 227a [MCLA 750.227a; MSA 28.424 (1) — unlawful possession of a pistol by a licensee], is guilty of a felony, and shall be imprisoned for 2 years.” MCL 750.227b; MSA 28.424(2).

Expressio unius est exclusio alterius. "Felony” includes robbery armed. MCL 750.529; MSA 28.797. By this statute the Legislature has attempted to make certainty of minimal punishment *683the standard where firearms are involved in the commission of felonies. The minimal punishment purpose applies with equal force to robbery armed crimes as to other crimes. As it cannot be doubted that the Legislature could have amended the robbery armed statute to add as a proviso that there be a minimal punishment where the dangerous weapon is a firearm, without offending the double jeopardy clause, see Gore v United States, supra, there is no double jeopardy impediment to its attainment of the same goal by separate statute.

Since the Legislature intended the type of result obtained in the instant case, the convictions do not violate double jeopardy protection.

Affirmed.