United States Court of Appeals
                     For the First Circuit


No. 23-1267

 IN RE: THE FINANCIAL OVERSIGHT AND MANAGEMENT BOARD FOR PUERTO
RICO, as Representative for the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico; THE
  FINANCIAL OVERSIGHT AND MANAGEMENT BOARD FOR PUERTO RICO, as
     Representative for the Puerto Rico Sales Tax Financing
     Corporation, a/k/a Cofina; THE FINANCIAL OVERSIGHT AND
  MANAGEMENT BOARD FOR PUERTO RICO, as Representative for the
      Employees Retirement System of the Government of the
    Commonwealth of Puerto Rico; THE FINANCIAL OVERSIGHT AND
  MANAGEMENT BOARD FOR PUERTO RICO, as Representative for the
Puerto Rico Highways and Transportation Authority; THE FINANCIAL
       OVERSIGHT AND MANAGEMENT BOARD FOR PUERTO RICO, as
  Representative for the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority
(PREPA); THE FINANCIAL OVERSIGHT AND MANAGEMENT BOARD FOR PUERTO
  RICO, as Representative of the Puerto Rico Public Buildings
                           Authority,

                           Debtors,


THE FINANCIAL OVERSIGHT AND MANAGEMENT BOARD FOR PUERTO RICO, as
      Representative for the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico,

                     Plaintiff, Appellee,

                              v.

                   RAFAEL HERNÁNDEZ-MONTAÑEZ,

                     Defendant, Appellant,

                    PEDRO PIERLUISI-URRUTIA,

                     Defendant, Appellee.
No. 23-1268

 IN RE: THE FINANCIAL OVERSIGHT AND MANAGEMENT BOARD FOR PUERTO
RICO, as Representative for the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico; THE
  FINANCIAL OVERSIGHT AND MANAGEMENT BOARD FOR PUERTO RICO, as
     Representative for the Puerto Rico Sales Tax Financing
     Corporation, a/k/a Cofina; THE FINANCIAL OVERSIGHT AND
  MANAGEMENT BOARD FOR PUERTO RICO, as Representative for the
      Employees Retirement System of the Government of the
    Commonwealth of Puerto Rico; THE FINANCIAL OVERSIGHT AND
  MANAGEMENT BOARD FOR PUERTO RICO, as Representative for the
Puerto Rico Highways and Transportation Authority; THE FINANCIAL
       OVERSIGHT AND MANAGEMENT BOARD FOR PUERTO RICO, as
  Representative for the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority
(PREPA); THE FINANCIAL OVERSIGHT AND MANAGEMENT BOARD FOR PUERTO
  RICO, as Representative of the Puerto Rico Public Buildings
                           Authority,

                            Debtors,


THE FINANCIAL OVERSIGHT AND MANAGEMENT BOARD FOR PUERTO RICO, as
      Representative for the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico,

                      Plaintiff, Appellee,

                               v.

                    PEDRO PIERLUISI-URRUTIA,

                     Defendant, Appellant,

                   RAFAEL HERNÁNDEZ-MONTAÑEZ,

                      Defendant, Appellee.


No. 23-1358

 IN RE: THE FINANCIAL OVERSIGHT AND MANAGEMENT BOARD FOR PUERTO
RICO, as Representative for the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico; THE
  FINANCIAL OVERSIGHT AND MANAGEMENT BOARD FOR PUERTO RICO, as
     Representative for the Puerto Rico Sales Tax Financing
     Corporation, a/k/a Cofina; THE FINANCIAL OVERSIGHT AND
  MANAGEMENT BOARD FOR PUERTO RICO, as Representative for the
      Employees Retirement System of the Government of the
    Commonwealth of Puerto Rico; THE FINANCIAL OVERSIGHT AND
  MANAGEMENT BOARD FOR PUERTO RICO, as Representative for the
Puerto Rico Highways and Transportation Authority; THE FINANCIAL
       OVERSIGHT AND MANAGEMENT BOARD FOR PUERTO RICO, as
  Representative for the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority
(PREPA); THE FINANCIAL OVERSIGHT AND MANAGEMENT BOARD FOR PUERTO
  RICO, as Representative of the Puerto Rico Public Buildings
                           Authority,

                             Debtors,


THE FINANCIAL OVERSIGHT AND MANAGEMENT BOARD FOR PUERTO RICO, as
      Representative for the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico,

                       Plaintiff, Appellee,

                                v.

                     PEDRO PIERLUISI-URRUTIA,

                      Defendant, Appellant,

                    RAFAEL HERNÁNDEZ-MONTAÑEZ,

                       Defendant, Appellee.


          APPEALS FROM THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
                 FOR THE DISTRICT OF PUERTO RICO

         [Hon. Laura Taylor Swain,* U.S. District Judge]


                              Before

                   Kayatta, Lynch, and Howard,
                         Circuit Judges.


     Jorge Martínez-Luciano, with whom Emil Rodríguez-Escudero and
M.L. & R.E. Law Firm were on brief, for appellant Rafael Hernández-
Montañez.
     Matthew P. Kremer and William J. Sushon, with whom John J.


     *  Of the   Southern   District    of   New   York,   sitting   by
designation.
Rapisardi, Peter Friedman, O'Melveny & Myers LLP, Luis C. Marini-
Biaggi, Carolina Velaz Rivero, and Marini Pietrantoni Muñiz LLC
were on brief, for appellant Pedro Pierluisi-Urrutia.
     Mark D. Harris and Timothy W. Mungovan, with whom Martin J.
Bienenstock, Julia D. Alonzo, Shiloh A. Rainwater, John E. Roberts,
Guy Brenner, Shannon D. McGowan, Lucas Kowalczyk, and Proskauer
Rose LLP were on brief, for appellee The Financial Oversight and
Management Board for Puerto Rico.


                         August 10, 2023
           KAYATTA, Circuit Judge.           In June 2022, the Governor of

Puerto Rico signed Act 41-2022 into law, tightening certain labor

regulations that had been loosened about five years earlier.                 The

Financial Oversight and Management Board for Puerto Rico (the

"Board" or the "Oversight Board") argues that the Governor failed

to submit the documentation necessary to demonstrate that Act 41

complied with the Board's fiscal plan for the Commonwealth, as

required pursuant to the Puerto Rico Oversight, Management, and

Economic Stability Act (PROMESA).

           The    Board   sued   the     Governor   to    block   the    law's

implementation, filing an adversary proceeding in the district

court overseeing Puerto Rico's bankruptcy process under Title III

of PROMESA.      The Board then moved for summary judgment, and the

Governor filed a motion for judgment on the pleadings, arguing

that the "Title III court" lacked subject matter jurisdiction over

the   dispute.      The   district     court,   after    concluding     it   had

jurisdiction, granted the Board's motion for summary judgment and

nullified the law.        For the following reasons, we affirm the

judgment of the district court.




                                     - 5 -
                                I.

                                A.

           We begin with an overview of those sections of PROMESA

that provide the foundation for this appeal.1      Congress enacted

PROMESA in 2016 "to address the Commonwealth's fiscal crisis,

facilitate restructuring of its public debt, ensure its future

access to capital markets, and provide for its long-term economic

stability."   Pierluisi v. Fin. Oversight & Mgmt. Bd. for P.R. (In

re Fin. Oversight & Mgmt. Bd. for P.R.), 

, 750 (1st

Cir. 2022).   PROMESA established the Oversight Board and gave it

"wide-ranging authority to oversee and direct many aspects of

Puerto Rico's financial recovery efforts."   

   Two of PROMESA's

tools for "address[ing] the Commonwealth's fiscal crisis" are

centrally relevant here: periodic fiscal plans certified by the

Board, and a bankruptcy-like proceeding resulting in a plan of

adjustment.   See id.; Fin. Oversight & Mgmt. Bd. for P.R. v.

Federacion de Maestros de P.R., Inc. (In re Fin. Oversight & Mgmt.

Bd. for P.R.), 

, 75 (1st Cir. 2022).    We describe each

in turn.

                                1.

           PROMESA Title II empowers the Board to, among other

things, develop and certify "fiscal plans" for the Commonwealth


     1  All uses of "section" refer to PROMESA, Pub. L. No. 114-
187, 

 (2016), unless otherwise specified.


                               - 6 -
and its instrumentalities.        See 

.        Fiscal plans

must "provide a method to achieve fiscal responsibility and access

to the capital markets," covering a period of at least five years.

(b)(1)–(2).        In order to ensure the government's

compliance with the policies and financial strategies set forth in

certified fiscal plans, section 204(a) "outlines a multi-step,

back-and-forth    process   by    which    the   Oversight    Board   reviews

Commonwealth     legislation     for    consistency   with"    such    plans.

Pierluisi, 37 F.4th at 751; see 

(a).

           Section 204(a)(1) requires the Governor to submit all

newly enacted laws to the Board within seven business days of the

relevant    law's     enactment.            

(a)(1).

Section 204(a)(2) provides that, along with the text of the new

law, the Governor must also submit: (i) "[a] formal estimate

prepared by an appropriate entity of the territorial government

with expertise in budgets and financial management of the impact,

if any, that the law will have on expenditures and revenues"; and

(ii) a certification by that same entity as to whether the law is

or is not "significantly inconsistent with the Fiscal Plan for the

fiscal year." 

 § 2144(a)(2). If the relevant entity determines

that the law is "significantly inconsistent," it must provide the

"reasons for such finding."       Id.

           Following the Governor's submission, PROMESA puts the

ball in the Board's court.         Pursuant to section 204(a)(3), the


                                   - 7 -
Board    must    "notif[y]      the   Governor         and   the    Legislature             if   a

submission      is    problematic,     either      because         it    lacks     a    formal

estimate or certification, or because the certification states

that the law is significantly inconsistent with the fiscal plan."

Pierluisi, 37 F.4th at 751; see 

(a)(3).                                Further,

under section 204(a)(4), the Board "may direct the Commonwealth to

provide    the       missing    estimate     or    certification,            or,       if    the

Commonwealth has certified that the law is inconsistent with the

fiscal plan, may direct the Commonwealth to 'correct the law to

eliminate the inconsistency' or 'provide an explanation for the

inconsistency        that     the   Oversight     Board        finds     reasonable          and

appropriate.'"         Pierluisi, 37 F.4th at 751 (quoting 

(a)(4)).         Finally, section 204(a)(5) provides that if the

Commonwealth "fails to comply with a direction given by the

Oversight Board under [section 204(a)(4)] with respect to a law,

the   Oversight       Board    may    take   such       actions         as   it    considers

necessary, consistent with [PROMESA], to ensure that the enactment

or enforcement of the law will not adversely affect the territorial

government's compliance with the Fiscal Plan, including preventing

the     enforcement      or    application        of     the     law."            

(a)(5).

            Related to the Board's power under section 204(a)(5) to

prevent "the enforcement . . . of the law," 

 is a prohibition

contained in section 108(a)(2), which applies broadly to constrain


                                        - 8 -
the Commonwealth's legislative power and is not limited to the

context of fiscal plans.              That section provides:           "Neither the

Governor       nor    the    Legislature     may . . .       enact,   implement,      or

enforce any statute, resolution, policy, or rule that would impair

or defeat the purposes of [PROMESA], as determined by the Oversight

Board."     

(a)(2).             And section 104(k) gives teeth

to   the    Board's         aforementioned      powers       to   intervene    in    the

Commonwealth's         legislative      process,         providing     that     "[t]he

Oversight Board may seek judicial enforcement of its authority to

carry    out    its    responsibilities         under    [PROMESA]."      

(k).

                                           2.

               PROMESA also created, through Title III, "a modified

version of the municipal bankruptcy code for territories and their

instrumentalities."            Federacion de Maestros, 32 F.4th at 75.

"Title III authorize[s] the Board to place the Commonwealth and

its instrumentalities into bankruptcy proceedings."                           Id.      As

elaborated further below, district courts have jurisdiction over

the Commonwealth's bankruptcy proceedings, and the District of

Puerto Rico is the proper venue for such proceedings.                          See 

(a),        2167.    Pursuant         to   section 308(a),        Chief

Justice Roberts designated Judge Laura Taylor Swain of the Southern

District of New York "to sit by designation" in the District of

Puerto Rico and "conduct the [Title III] case."                       See 48 U.S.C.


                                        - 9 -
§ 2168(a); Pierluisi, 37 F.4th at 751 n.4.     The Board commenced

the Title III case on behalf of the Commonwealth on May 3, 2017,

and the "Title III court" -- the name commonly used to refer to

the court sitting pursuant to the Chief Justice's section 308(a)

designation -- confirmed the Commonwealth's plan of adjustment on

January 18, 2022.   In re Fin. Oversight & Mgmt. Bd. for P.R., 

, 6 (D.P.R. 2022).

                                B.

          The Board brought this lawsuit to block enforcement of

Act 41-2022, which the Governor signed into law on June 20, 2022.

All parties agree that Act 41 amends certain provisions of the

Labor Transformation and Flexibility Act (LTFA or "Act 4-2017").

The LTFA, enacted in January 2017, generally sought to loosen rules

imposed on private-sector employers.   Act 41 reverses the LTFA's

loosening of rules regarding sick leave, vacation leave, Christmas

bonus eligibility, employee probationary periods, and employers'

obligations to justify employee dismissals.

          Each of the Board's certified Commonwealth fiscal plans,

dating back to the first one certified on March 13, 2017, has

recommended deregulatory changes viewed by the Board as increasing

labor participation.   As relevant here, the 2021 certified plan

expressed concern that repeal of the LTFA would "discourage new

hiring and reduce . . . labor market flexibility," declaring that

"the Government must refrain from repealing Act 4-2017 or enacting


                              - 10 -
new legislation that negatively impacts labor market flexibility."

The Board repeated these statements in the fiscal plan certified

on January 27, 2022.

             Nonetheless, on March 10, 2022, the Puerto Rico House of

Representatives passed HB 1244 -- the bill that would later become

Act 41.   Eight days later, the Board issued a resolution directing

the Senate not to pass HB 1244 and the Governor not to enact or

implement it, in part because the bill "propose[d] to repeal

portions of the LTFA and reestablish many of the burdensome labor

restrictions that existed prior to the passage of the LTFA."          The

resolution further advised that the Commonwealth was barred from

enacting the bill under section 108(a)(2), which, as described

above, prohibits the Governor and the legislature from enacting or

implementing any statute "that would impair or defeat the purposes

of [PROMESA]."     

(a).      The Board approved taking

legal action pursuant to section 104(k) to block enactment or

enforcement of the bill.

             The legislature then passed the bill on June 7, 2022.

In response, the Board sent a letter to the Governor notifying him

that the Board "ha[d] determined that HB 1244 impairs and defeats

PROMESA's purposes."        The letter continued, "By seeking to repeal

the LTFA's reforms, the Bill is significantly inconsistent with

the Certified Fiscal Plan.        You are barred from signing the Bill

into   law   by   PROMESA    Section 108(a)(2)."    The   Board   further


                                   - 11 -
explained that if the Governor decided to sign the law, he would

be required to submit a formal estimate and certification pursuant

to section 204(a), and such estimate would need to "address the

full economic impact of the issues raised in this letter, including

how the Bill's impact on labor force participation will affect

revenues."

            The Governor signed HB 1244 into law on June 20, 2022,

thus triggering the section 204(a) review process at the heart of

this appeal.       On June 29, the Puerto Rico Fiscal Agency and

Financial Advisory Authority (AAFAF), acting on behalf of the

Governor,    submitted   its   section 204(a)(2)        cost    estimate   and

certification to the Board (the "Section 204(a) Submission").              The

Section 204(a) Submission explained that "Act 41 seeks to improve

the labor markets in Puerto Rico by: a) increasing the labor supply

through   improvements    in   the    compensation      of   private   sector

employees    and   integration   of    new   entrants    into    the   formal

workforce; and b) promoting increased labor market participation."

With respect to the law's impact on the LTFA and compliance with

the most recent fiscal plan, the report concluded:

            [T]he most important labor market reforms of
            Act 4-2017 were preserved and continue in
            effect post-Act 41 enactment. Specifically,
            only 13 of the 72 substantive sections of
            Act 4-2017     were    subject    to     any
            modification . . . .

            Although Act 41 is consistent with the plain
            language [of the 2022 certified fiscal plan],


                                 - 12 -
          in as much as it does not repeal Act 4-2017,
          an argument can be made that Act 41
          "negatively      impacts      labor     market
          flexibility." A close examination of Act 41
          shows that it continues to largely preserve
          Act 4-2017's structural reforms and when
          taking   into   consideration    the  analysis
          provided herein, one may conclude Act 41 is
          not significantly inconsistent with the [2022]
          Fiscal Plan.

          And   regarding   the   law's    economic   impact,   the   AAFAF

stated:

          [N]otwithstanding Act 41's expected positive
          impact on the labor supply, the ultimate
          economic impact of Act 41 will need to be
          evaluated while considering broader and
          competing macroeconomic factors affecting the
          Puerto   Rico    economy,    including:   U.S.
          inflationary pressure, global supply-chain
          constraints, and the continuing energy crisis.
          Considering the limitations on economic and
          labor statistics in Puerto Rico, including
          long reporting lags and limitations around
          coverage and national comparability, it is
          difficult to perform current and reliable
          economic analysis geared towards accurately
          isolating and measuring Act 41's impact on the
          Puerto Rico Economy vis-a-vis competing
          macroeconomic supply and inflation shocks,
          whose size and scope are unprecedented in the
          last four decades of data in the United
          States.    Hence, a comprehensive economic
          analysis requires the design of Puerto Rico-
          specific empirical studies in order to capture
          the subtleties of Act 41's differing treatment
          of subclasses within the Puerto Rico labor
          market.

          The Section 204(a) Submission included as attachments

fiscal impact certifications from the Puerto Rico Department of

Treasury and the Puerto Rico Office of Management and Budget.



                                  - 13 -
These certifications -- which were completed on standardized two-

page forms -- indicated that Act 41 would have no impact on

government revenue and reported that the impact on expenditures

would be limited to $3,000, with such cost attributable to the

publication of notices by the Puerto Rico Department of Labor.2

            On     July 19,       2022,        the      Board,     pursuant        to

section 204(a)(3), notified the Governor and the legislature that

the   Section 204(a)       Submission     did     not   include    "the   required

certification and formal estimate for Act 41."                    With respect to

the estimate, the Board described that the Governor had failed to

"assess[]    [Act 41's]         impact    on      the   economy     and    on     the

Commonwealth's       revenues    and     expenditures."          The    Board    then

explained   that     the   submission's        certification      was   inadequate

because "the absence of a proper formal estimate . . . necessarily

means that the certification is also deficient," and, in any event,

Act 41 is significantly inconsistent with the fiscal plan.                    Citing

section 204(a)(4), the Board "direct[ed] the Governor to provide

the missing formal estimate and certification" by July 22.                        The

letter     further     provided,         "given      the   Oversight          Board's

determination that the Act impairs and/or defeats the purposes of

PROMESA,    the    Government     must    immediately      suspend      the     law's



      2 A subsequent update provided that the Department of Labor
only spent $1,248.12 publishing the required notices, rather than
$3,000 as initially estimated.


                                       - 14 -
implementation and enforcement -- at least until the Government

and the Oversight Board have fully exchanged their views concerning

Act 41 and the Oversight Board changes its determination (which

may not occur)."

          The    AAFAF   responded        three    days     later,   "strongly

disagree[ing]    with    the   assertion      that     the    [Section 204(a)

Submission]     is   non-compliant    with        PROMESA    Section 204(a)'s

requirements," and repeating the assertion that "[a] comprehensive

economic analysis of Act 41 [would be] an ambitious and expansive

undertaking that would require economists to design Puerto Rico-

specific empirical studies and economic models."               The Board and

the AAFAF subsequently exchanged several more letters, with each

party maintaining its position regarding the adequacy of the

Section 204(a) Submission.

                                     C.

          On September 1, 2022, the Board initiated this adversary

proceeding under Title III against the Governor.             The Board sought

an order nullifying Act 41 based on two independent claims: (i) the

Board's determination pursuant to section 108(a)(2) that Act 41

"impair[s] or defeat[s] the purposes of [PROMESA]," 

(a), and (ii) the Governor's failure to provide the required

certification and formal estimate pursuant to section 204(a).              The

Speaker of the Puerto Rico House of Representatives intervened as

a defendant on behalf of the House.


                                 - 15 -
           The Board moved for summary judgment on September 29,

2022.   On the same day, the Governor filed a Rule 12(c) motion for

judgment on the pleadings, arguing that the court lacked subject

matter jurisdiction. The district court granted the Board's motion

with respect to section 204(a) -- nullifying Act 41 and any actions

taken to implement it -- and denied the Governor's Rule 12(c)

motion. The court subsequently dismissed as moot the Board's claim

with respect to section 108(a)(2).         The Governor and the Speaker

timely appealed.

                                   II.

           We review the district court's grant of summary judgment

de novo, "construing the record in the light most favorable to the

non-moving party."    López-Santos v. Metro. Sec. Servs., 

 (1st Cir. 2020).      We likewise review de novo the district

court's denial of the Governor's 12(c) motion.         Shay v. Walters,

 (1st Cir. 2012).

           The   Governor   and   the    Speaker   raise   two   principal

arguments on appeal: first, that the "Title III court" lacks

subject matter jurisdiction over the Board's section 204(a) claim;

and second, that the Governor's Section 204(a) Submission complied

with the formal estimate and certification requirements.               We

address these arguments in turn.




                                  - 16 -
                                    A.

          We begin with a technical, but important point:                   There

is only one court at issue in this case -- the United States

District Court for the District of Puerto Rico.               And that court

clearly has subject matter jurisdiction over this lawsuit, either

under 

 because, as all parties agree, this case

turns on the resolution of federal questions, or under PROMESA

section 306(a)(2),   which   gives       the   court      "original   but     not

exclusive jurisdiction of all civil proceedings arising under

[Title III], or arising in or related to cases under [Title III]."

(a)(2).

          So the argument by the Governor and the Speaker that the

court below lacks subject matter jurisdiction cannot succeed.

Rather, the argument must be that this case should not have been

assigned to Judge Swain because subject matter jurisdiction rests

only on 

, and not on section 306(a)(2).               According

to this argument, because Judge Swain was specifically designated

"to conduct the [Title III] case," 

(a), "where a

dispute does not fit within the jurisdictional parameters of

[section 306(a)(2)] . . .    it   should       not   be   entertained    as    an

adversary proceeding overseen by [her]."             Fin. Oversight & Mgmt.

Bd. for P.R. v. Pierluisi (In re Fin. Oversight & Mgmt. Bd. for

P.R.), 

, 348 (D.P.R. 2023).




                                  - 17 -
            Assuming without deciding that Judge Swain's mandate is

so   limited,   and    that    exceeding    that    mandate     would     provide

sufficient   grounds     for   reversal,    we     nevertheless    reject    the

argument.       We     conclude    that     the     Board's     section 204(a)

claim -- which served as the basis for the district court's

decision on the merits -- falls within the ambit of Title III's

jurisdictional grant.

            As noted above, section 306(a)(2) provides that district

courts generally have "original but not exclusive jurisdiction of

all civil proceedings arising under [Title III], or arising in or

related to cases under [Title III]." 

(a)(2). This

language mirrors 

(b), which gives district courts

jurisdiction over certain title 11 bankruptcy matters.                    See 

(b) ("[T]he district courts shall have original but

not exclusive jurisdiction of all civil proceedings arising under

title 11, or arising in or related to cases under title 11.");

Asociación de Salud Primaria de P.R., Inc. v. Puerto Rico (In re

Fin. Oversight & Mgmt. Bd. for P.R.), 

(D.P.R. 2018).        Accordingly, the parties agree that our prior

decisions    interpreting      that   jurisdictional          provision    under

title 11 should, at least to some extent, inform our interpretation

of Title III's jurisdictional bounds.

            In Gupta v. Quincy Medical Center, 

 (1st

Cir. 2017), we outlined the three forms of title 11 jurisdiction


                                   - 18 -
listed in 

(b) -- "arising under," "arising in,"

and "related to."         

 at 661–63.        First, "proceedings 'aris[e]

under title 11' when the Bankruptcy Code itself creates the cause

of action."      Id. at 662 (alteration in original).               Second, "[w]e

have defined 'arising in' proceedings generally as 'those that are

not   based    on   any   right     expressly    created     by    title 11,   but

nevertheless, would have no existence outside of the bankruptcy.'"

Id. at 662–63 (quoting Middlesex Power Equip. & Marine, Inc. v.

Town of Tyngsborough (In re Middlesex Power Equip. & Marine, Inc.),

 (1st Cir. 2002)). Third, "'related to' proceedings

are those 'which "potentially have some effect on the bankruptcy

estate, such as altering debtor's rights, liabilities, options, or

freedom of action, or otherwise have an impact upon the handling

and administration of the bankrupt estate."'"              

 at 663 (quoting

In re Middlesex Power Equip. & Marine, Inc., 

).

              "Arising under" jurisdiction is not at issue here, as it

is undisputed that Title III itself did not create the Board's

cause of action.      The Board brought this case based on provisions

within PROMESA Title I (sections 108(a) and 104(k)) and Title II

(section 204(a)).         That leaves "arising in" and "related to"

jurisdiction; and because "related to" is the broader of the two

concepts, we begin there.

              As described above, "'related to' proceedings are those

'which   "potentially        have     some     effect   on        the   bankruptcy


                                      - 19 -
estate . . . or otherwise have an impact upon the handling and

administration of the bankrupt estate."'"               

      This test is

commonly referred to as the Pacor standard, based on the Third

Circuit case that initially developed it.          Pacor, Inc. v. Higgins,

    (3d   Cir.    1984).   We    have    observed   that

"[a]lthough 'related to' jurisdiction 'cannot be limitless,' it is

nonetheless 'quite broad.'"             Gupta, 

 (citation

omitted) (first quoting Celotex Corp. v. Edwards, 

 (1995); and then quoting Bos. Reg'l Med. Ctr., Inc. v. Reynolds

(In re Bos. Reg'l Med. Ctr., Inc.), 

 (1st Cir.

2005)).

             The Governor and the Speaker, however, urge us to apply

the "close nexus" test -- a narrower conception of "related to"

jurisdiction    that      several   other   circuits,   but    not   the   First

Circuit, have adopted in the context of disputes arising after

confirmation of a bankruptcy plan.            See, e.g.,       Binder v. Price

Waterhouse & Co., LLP (In re Resorts Int'l, Inc.), 

,

166–67 (3d Cir. 2004) (defining the "close nexus" test); Montana

v. Goldin (In re Pegasus Gold Corp.), 

 (9th

Cir. 2005) (adopting the Third Circuit's "close nexus" test);

Valley Historic Ltd. P'ship v. Bank of N.Y., 

, 836–

837 (4th Cir. 2007) (adopting the Third Circuit's "close nexus"

test); Bank of La. v. Craig's Stores of Tex., Inc. (In re Craig's

Stores of Tex., Inc.), 

, 390–91 (5th Cir. 2001)


                                     - 20 -
(adopting     a   test   that     narrowed       post-confirmation      bankruptcy

jurisdiction, similar to the "close nexus" test); Pettibone Corp.

v. Easley, 

, 122–23 (7th Cir. 1991) (concluding that

bankruptcy jurisdiction narrows following confirmation).

             Under the "close nexus" test, as articulated by the Third

Circuit, "the essential inquiry [is] whether there is a close nexus

to    the   bankruptcy     plan    or    proceeding    sufficient      to   uphold

bankruptcy court jurisdiction over the matter. . . .                  Matters that

affect      the    interpretation,          implementation,          consummation,

execution, or administration of the confirmed plan will typically

have the requisite close nexus."             In re Resorts, 372 F.3d at 166–

67.    The test arose in part because the Pacor standard cannot be

applied literally in the post-confirmation context.                      "[I]t is

impossible for the bankrupt debtor's estate to be affected by a

post-confirmation dispute because the debtor's estate ceases to

exist once confirmation has occurred."                

.       The Third

Circuit further observed that "bankruptcy court jurisdiction 'must

be    confined    within   appropriate       limits    and    does    not   extend

indefinitely, particularly after the confirmation.'"                   

 at 164

(quoting Donaldson v. Bernstein, 

 (3d Cir. 1997)).

             We declined to apply the "close nexus" test in In re

Boston Regional, which analyzed a post-confirmation dispute in the

context of a chapter 11 plan of liquidation.                 410 F.3d at 106–07.

In distinguishing that case from In re Resorts and others that


                                        - 21 -
have narrowed bankruptcy jurisdiction following confirmation, we

pointed   to   differences     between    liquidating    plans    and     "true

reorganization plans," where "the corporation moves on" following

the bankruptcy.      

     Crucially, we observed that "context is

important," and "what is 'related to' a proceeding under title 11

in one context may be unrelated in another."            

    "The existence

vel non of related to jurisdiction must be determined case-by-

case."    Id. at 107.

            That logic guides our reasoning here.              While general

principles from our title 11 case law are instructive, those same

principles     dictate      that    we    cannot     rigidly     import    the

jurisdictional tests from that context to this case.                With the

"sui generis nature of PROMESA" in mind, Federacion de Maestros,

32 F.4th at 78 (quoting Peaje Invs. LLC v. García-Padilla, 

 (1st Cir. 2017)), it becomes clear that what might

be "related to" a Title III case is distinct from what might be

"related to" a title 11 bankruptcy case.

            So the central jurisdictional question on appeal is,

simply put, whether the Board's claim -- that the Governor violated

section 204(a) by failing to submit the requisite estimate and

certification for Act 41 -- is "related to" the Commonwealth's

Title III    case,   in    which   the   Title III   court     confirmed   the

Commonwealth's plan of adjustment five months prior to Act 41's

enactment.


                                    - 22 -
             The nature of the statutory scheme here provides the

answer.       "In     enacting      PROMESA,       Congress     found    that    '[a]

comprehensive       approach   to    fiscal,       management,     and   structural

problems and adjustments . . . is necessary, involving independent

oversight and a Federal statutory authority for the Government of

Puerto Rico to restructure debts in a fair and orderly process.'"

Id.     at   74     (alteration      in    original)        (quoting     

(m)(4)).       The fiscal plans developed under Title II and the

bankruptcy procedures established under Title III are both part of

that    "comprehensive     approach"        --     complementary    policy       tools

focused on the same goal.           Section 314(b)(7) further demonstrates

their    complementary     nature.         That     provision    requires,       as    a

condition precedent to the confirmation of the plan of adjustment,

that the "plan [be] consistent with the applicable Fiscal Plan

certified by the Oversight Board under [Title] II."                       

(b)(7); see In re Fin. Oversight & Mgmt. Bd. for P.R., 636

B.R. at 220, ex. A, ¶ 85.1(a).                    And just as a provision in

Title III explicitly requires consistency with the fiscal plan

certified    under    Title II,      a    provision    in     Title II   explicitly

requires consistency with the plan of adjustment confirmed under

Title III: section 201(b)(1)(M) provides that fiscal plans may not

call for the transfer of assets between territorial entities,

unless such transfer is permitted by the plan of adjustment.                          

(b)(1)(M).


                                         - 23 -
            Given    this    backdrop,         we     conclude     that    the     Board's

efforts    to    enforce    the    Commonwealth's            certified     fiscal      plan

through    section 204(a)         are,    at     a    minimum,     "related      to"   the

Commonwealth's Title III case.3                Any differences between the pre-

and post-confirmation manifestations of the "related to" test are

largely irrelevant in this context.                  In a typical bankruptcy case

analyzing       "relatedness,"     the     court       analyzes     whether      a   claim

arising under an area of law entirely unrelated to title 11 (e.g.,

contract or tort) is "related to" the bankruptcy case.                       See, e.g.,

In re Bos. Reg'l, 

 (charitable bequests); In re

Resorts, 372 F.3d at 156–57 (professional malpractice and breach

of contract); Pacor, 

 (products liability); Valley

Historic Ltd. P'ship, 

 (breach of contract and

tortious    interference).               Here,       the     substantive     provisions

underlying the Board's claim were enacted in the same piece of

legislation and directed toward the same goal as Title III.                            That

claim is thus "related" -- in a fundamental sense -- to the

Commonwealth's       Title III      case;        and       this   relation    is     quite

different from the way a contract claim, for instance, may or may

not be related to a traditional bankruptcy case.

            The Governor argues that our conclusion here "would

extend    bankruptcy       jurisdiction         over       virtually   every       dispute


     3  For this reason, we need not address whether this dispute
"aris[es] in" the Title III case.


                                         - 24 -
between the Government and the Board for years to come," violating

"the bedrock principle of limited bankruptcy court jurisdiction,

particularly     post-confirmation."           But    the    key     rationales       for

applying "related to" jurisdiction more narrowly in the post-

confirmation context are missing here.                First, as we observed in

In re Boston Regional, a broad post-confirmation construction of

"related to" jurisdiction "would unfairly advantage reorganized

debtors by allowing such firms to funnel virtually all litigation

affecting them into a single federal forum."                    

.

Here, by contrast, it is plain that the Commonwealth enjoys no

"unfair[] advantage" by having this dispute heard in the Title III

court; after all, the Governor and the Speaker -- the parties

arguing   that     the   case    cannot    be        heard     in     the     Title III

court -- both claim to be representing the Commonwealth's best

interests.     And the appropriate forum, according to the Governor

and the Speaker, is a non-Title III court sitting in the District

of Puerto Rico.     So this case is about whether the Board's claims

should be heard by one judge or another within the District of

Puerto Rico -- a far cry from a reorganized debtor seeking to

"funnel" claims that would ordinarily be heard in state or federal

courts across the country "into a single federal forum."                        

          Another reason for narrowing bankruptcy jurisdiction

with respect to reorganized corporate debtors is that "as the

corporation      moves   on,    the    connection        [to        the     bankruptcy]


                                      - 25 -
attenuates."        

.     But under PROMESA, the Commonwealth

does not simply "move on" from its fiscal crisis once the plan of

adjustment     is     confirmed.       The     Board's    oversight      of   the

Commonwealth's       financial     recovery    --   including       through    the

development and enforcement of fiscal plans -- continues until the

Board terminates.4

           Our      conclusion    today    does   not    result    in   limitless

"related     to"    jurisdiction.         We   address    only     whether    this

dispute -- regarding the application of PROMESA's fiscal plan

compliance rules to newly enacted legislation -- "relates to" the

Commonwealth's Title III case.5            There must, of course, be some

limit to what is "related to" a Title III case.                   Cf. N.Y. State

Conf. of Blue Cross & Blue Shield Plans v. Travelers Ins. Co., 

 (1995) (explaining, in the context of analyzing a



     4  Under section 209, the Board will terminate once the Board
certifies that Puerto Rico (i) "has adequate access to short-term
and long-term credit markets at reasonable interest rates" and
(ii) has experienced balanced budgets, developed in accordance
with modified accrual accounting standards, for at least four
consecutive fiscal years. 

.
     5  The Speaker points out that the Board has certified fiscal
plans for a variety of territorial instrumentalities that have not
been placed in Title III proceedings (e.g., the University of
Puerto Rico and the Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer Authority). We
do not opine on the circumstances in which disputes centering on
such instrumentalities may      or may not      "relate to" the
Commonwealth's Title III case.    Here, the fiscal plan for the
Commonwealth itself (rather than one of its instrumentalities) is
the focus of this dispute, and it is the Commonwealth's Title III
proceeding that this dispute is "related to."


                                     - 26 -
statute that preempted state laws "relate[d] to" a particular

subject, that "[i]f 'relate to' were taken to extend to the

furthest stretch of its indeterminacy, then for all practical

purposes pre-emption would never run its course . . . .          But that,

of course, would be to read Congress's words of limitation as mere

sham . . . .").        Stronger arguments against jurisdiction          will

certainly arise where one of PROMESA's tools for financial reform

does not provide the basis for the claim.               But this dispute

comfortably falls within the bounds of "related to" jurisdiction,

the outer limits of which we need not now limn.

                                      B.

          Having concluded that Judge Swain properly acted within

the scope of her designation, we now address the merits of the

section 204(a) claim.       The Governor and the Speaker assert that

the Governor provided the requisite formal estimate of Act 41's

financial impact and certification of the law's consistency with

the   fiscal   plan.      Because    there   is   no   dispute   that   the

certification must rely on an appropriate formal estimate -- and

because, as described further below, the Governor and the Speaker

make no argument that they can prevail on appeal if we conclude

the estimate was inadequate -- this appeal necessarily turns on

PROMESA's requirements for such estimates.

          As discussed above, section 204(a)(2)(A) requires the

Governor to provide "[a] formal estimate prepared by an appropriate


                                    - 27 -
entity of the territorial government with expertise in budgets and

financial management of the impact, if any, that the law will have

on expenditures and revenues."         

(a)(2)(A).      In

Pierluisi, our only previous case regarding the scope of this

provision, we cited approvingly the district court's description

"that a 'formal estimate' under section 204(a) means a complete

and accurate estimate 'covering revenue and expenditure effects of

new legislation' over the entire [five-year] period of the fiscal

plan."    37 F.4th at 752 (quoting Fin. Oversight & Mgmt. Bd. for

P.R. v. Garced (In re Fin. Oversight & Mgmt. Bd. for P.R.), 

, 13 (D.P.R. 2019)).         We applied that standard to the

estimates the Governor submitted for two different healthcare-

related laws.     

, 762–64.       For one of those laws, the

Governor's submission reported an impact of $475,131.47 on the

Department of Health's budget and no impact on revenues.           

.     For the other, the submission simply stated the law would

have no impact on expenditures or revenue.        

.   Because

the Governor provided no "analysis or data" to support these

"conclusory" statements, we held that the Board had reasonably

determined     that     the   submissions   failed   to   comply     with

section 204(a).       

 at 762–64.

            Here, the Governor made no attempt to submit an estimate

of Act 41's impact on government revenues, despite conceding that

"Act 41 could have secondary effects that might affect employment


                                  - 28 -
in the Commonwealth (thereby potentially affecting the tax base

and revenues)."      The only relevant financial figure included in

the Section 204(a) Submission was an estimate of the Department of

Labor's publishing costs.     The Governor and the Speaker argue that

no revenue estimate was required because Act 41 "regulates a purely

private labor market, has no effect on tax rates, and creates no

new sources of Government revenue."          They assert that any impact

on revenue would be speculative, maintaining that section 204(a)

"does not require speculation about remote future fiscal effects."

           But    section 204(a)(2)(A)       provides     no   exception   for

economic analysis that, as the Governor describes, is "difficult

to perform" due to competing "macroeconomic factors."              Doing what

the Governor and the Speaker ask -- essentially, eliminating the

formal estimate requirement for all private sector regulatory

laws -- would be inconsistent with section 204(a)'s text and

purpose.      "The    procedures    and     obligations    contemplated    by

section 204(a) are not procedure for procedure's sake.                Rather,

they serve the critical purpose of allowing the Board to determine

that the legislation at issue adheres to the fiscal plan and will

not impair PROMESA's purpose of restoring Puerto Rico to fiscal

stability."      Pierluisi, 37 F.4th at 766.       Requiring the Governor

to formally estimate the fiscal impact of legislation also has the

salutary effect of decreasing the likelihood that the Commonwealth

will enact legislation that will prolong the Board's supervision,


                                   - 29 -
or even worse, repeat the practices that led to the Commonwealth's

insolvency.   Accordingly, where it is clear that a law could have

an   impact   on   revenues       --   as     the      Governor     concedes

here -- section 204(a)(2)(A) requires an estimate of such impact.

          The Governor attempts to ground his interpretation of

section 204(a)(2)(A)   in   its    text,    focusing    on   the   following

phrase: "estimate . . . of the impact, if any, that the law will

have."   

(a)(2)(A) (emphasis added).               First, he

asserts that "the plain meaning of 'will have' requires at a

minimum that the future fiscal effects be reasonably foreseeable

and estimable to be included in the § 204(a) estimate.                   Had

Congress meant to require the Government to estimate speculative,

secondary or tertiary effects of new legislation, it would have

chosen 'could have,' 'may have,' or 'potentially have.'"             Second,

the "use of the words 'impact, if any,' reflects Congress's common

sense understanding that there are some laws that will not have

foreseeable (or even any) fiscal effects."

          While we do not reject the possibility that some laws

will indeed have no effect that can be estimated, the statute's

use of the term "estimate" makes clear that uncertainty as to a

law's effects does not generally provide an excuse for making no

serious attempt.    See The American Heritage Dictionary of the

English Language 609 (5th ed. 2011) (defining the noun form of

"estimate" as "[a] tentative evaluation or rough calculation, as


                                  - 30 -
of    worth,     quantity      or    size");       Webster's     New    World       College

Dictionary 498 (5th ed. 2014) (defining the noun form of "estimate"

as "a general calculation of size, value, etc.").                       Our conclusion

is buttressed by the text's requirement that the estimate be

"formal" -- signifying both the importance and the official nature

of    the   estimate     --    and    by    the   requirement     that       the    "formal

estimate" be prepared by an "appropriate" entity with "expertise"

in    "budgets"     and       "financial         management."          See    

(a)(2)(A).         Although it may be "difficult" to foresee the

revenue effects of Act 41 in light of competing economic factors,

the Governor has failed to demonstrate that the effects of Act 41

are    entirely     unforeseeable           or    immeasurable    through          economic

modeling.

               Further, the Governor asserts that requiring an estimate

that accounts for effects on the private labor market would go

"beyond     what   the    United      States'       Congressional       Budget       Office

[(CBO)] is required to do."                But he fails to address the fact that

for certain "major legislation," the CBO is currently required to

assess macroeconomic effects, such as effects on labor supply.

See Megan S. Lynch & Jane G. Gravelle, Cong. Rsch. Serv., R46233,

Dynamic Scoring in the Congressional Budget Process 4, 13 (2023).

In any event, what the CBO is required to do sheds little light on

what PROMESA mandates.              CBO estimates are generally prepared for

all bills reported from congressional committees, see id. at 2, so


                                           - 31 -
it makes sense that more intensive modeling is not always required.

Section 204(a), in contrast, kicks in only once a Commonwealth law

is enacted.    And, more importantly, CBO estimates are part of

Congress's    ongoing    ordinary      course     of     business,   while

section 204(a) was enacted in direct response to Puerto Rico's

fiscal crisis and will no longer apply to Puerto Rico once the

Board terminates.6      Section 204(a) is thus a temporary measure

addressing an acute need for detailed financial estimates, making

comparisons to CBO estimates inapposite.

           Additionally,     the   Governor     argues   that   Act 41   is

distinguishable from the healthcare laws at issue in Pierluisi.

He asserts that those laws resulted in foreseeable government

expenditures because they affected the prices health insurers

would pay for medications and medical services, and such changes

would affect the cost of government-provided health insurance.

But the Board's requests for estimates for those laws were not

limited solely to the impact on the government insurance plan.

Pierluisi, 37 F.4th at 753.        And even if the estimates relevant

there had been so limited, it is not at all clear that estimating

the effect on government insurance costs would have been much

simpler than estimating Act 41's effects.        The laws did not simply

set new rate schedules; rather, one law created a new system for



     6   See supra note 4.


                                   - 32 -
negotiating medication costs, and the other altered regulations

regarding healthcare providers' relationships with managed care

organizations and health insurance networks.                Id.

            The   Governor    also   points        out   that   our   decision   in

Pierluisi turned in part on our "conclusion that the Government

had declined to supply requested information to the Board and then

short-circuited the collaborative § 204(a) process by suing the

Board for declaratory relief."          Here, the Governor asserts, "the

Board stone-walled the Government and then abruptly terminated the

§ 204(a) process by suing."          While the Governor is correct that

our reasoning in Pierluisi did, in part, turn on the Governor's

decision to "cut off the exchange and [take] the Board to court,"

id. at 763, the Board's decision to file suit in this case occurred

only after repeated requests for the relevant revenue estimate,

and the Governor's erroneous insistence that no such estimate was

required.

            Finally, the Governor argues that the district court

erred by failing to address whether the Board's actions with

respect to Act 41 were arbitrary and capricious. In the Governor's

view, "the Board both pre-judged Act 41 and failed to provide the

evidence and reasoning underlying the Board's rejection of the

law."   The Governor relatedly contends that summary judgment was

improper    without   first   providing       an    adequate      opportunity    for

discovery of certain Board materials, all of which pertain to the


                                     - 33 -
Board's allegedly arbitrary and capricious actions.                      But the

Governor presents these alleged errors as stemming ultimately from

the district court's "erroneous analysis" of the Section 204(a)

Submission,        and    does   not   explain      how   this    "arbitrary-and-

capricious" argument could serve as an independent ground for

reversal.    In any event, we find unpersuasive the contention that

the Board need have done more to explain in its correspondence

with the Governor the reasons why -- prior to the submission of

the appropriate formal estimate -- the enforcement of Act 41 would

"adversely affect the territorial government's compliance with the

Fiscal Plan."       

(a)(5).

            In sum, all of the arguments that the Governor and the

Speaker     make     on    the   merits     hinge   on    the    contention   that

section 204(a) requires no more of the Governor than what he did.

Having rejected all permutations of that contention, we are left

with no reason to disturb the district court's order nullifying

Act 41.

                                          III.

            For the foregoing reasons, the judgment of the district

court is affirmed.




                                       - 34 -