United States Court of Appeals
                       For the First Circuit


No. 23-1813, 23-1828

 MONISHA GUPTA, SWAPNIL VIJAY KUMAR GADKARI, NIKUNJ PATEL, ANUJA
                              PATEL,

                       Plaintiffs, Appellants,

                                 v.

   UR MENDOZA JADDOU, Director, United States Citizenship and
 Immigration Services, ANTONY BLINKEN, Secretary, United States
                      Department of State,

                       Defendants, Appellees.


          APPEALS FROM THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
                FOR THE DISTRICT OF MASSACHUSETTS

           [Hon. Indira Talwani, U.S. District Judge]


                               Before

                      Barron, Chief Judge,
               Lipez and Kayatta, Circuit Judges.


     Brad Banias, with whom Banias Law, LLC was on brief, for
appellants.
     Alessandra Faso, Trial Attorney, Office of Immigration
Litigation, with whom Brian M. Boynton, Principal Deputy Assistant
Attorney General, Civil Division, William C. Peachey, Director,
Office of Immigration Litigation, Glenn M. Girdharry, Assistant
Director, Office of Immigration Litigation, and Aaron S.
Goldsmith, Senior Litigation Counsel, Office of Immigration
Litigation, were on brief, for appellees.
October 16, 2024




     - 2 -
             BARRON, Chief Judge.        This appeal concerns a lawsuit by

four noncitizens from India, most of whom have been lawfully

present and residing in this country for at least the last ten

years.     Although the plaintiffs applied for permanent residency in

the United States more than four years ago, their applications

have not yet been adjudicated. In response, they filed these suits

in   the    United      States   District       Court   for   the   District   of

Massachusetts under the Administrative Procedure Act ("APA"), 

   et    seq.    They    allege    unlawful    withholding     and

unreasonable delay of agency action.              They name as defendants the

Director of the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services

("USCIS"), Ur Mendoza Jaddou, and the Secretary of the United

States Department of State ("DOS"), Antony Blinken.                 The District

Court dismissed these claims pursuant to Federal Rule of Civil

Procedure 12(b)(6), for failure to state a claim on which relief

may be granted, and Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 12(b)(1), for

want of subject-matter jurisdiction. We affirm based on the former

ground.

                                         I.

             To understand the issues at play on appeal, it helps to

understand the relevant statutory and regulatory landscape.                After

describing this landscape in a rather detailed way and the many

aspects of it that bear on the processing of an application for




                                        - 3 -
permanent legal residency, we retrace the path from the filings of

these lawsuits to the appeals at hand.

                                A.

          The two main statutory provisions at issue are 

(a) and (b).      Under the first   provision,   § 1255(a),   a

noncitizen who, like each of the plaintiffs here, is lawfully

present in the United States and seeks legal permanent resident

status must (1) apply for "adjustment" of his status; (2) be

"eligible to receive an immigrant visa and . . . admissible to the

United States for permanent residence"; and (3) have an immigrant

visa "immediately available to him at the time his application is

filed."   

(a) (emphasis added).   If each of these

three statutory requirements is met, then § 1255(a) provides that

the Secretary of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security ("DHS")

"may" adjust the noncitizen's status to that of a legal permanent

resident "in his discretion and under such regulations as he may

prescribe."   Id.1

          Under the second provision, § 1255(b), the approval by

the DHS Secretary of an application for adjustment triggers two

additional processes.    First, the DHS Secretary is directed to


     1 As enacted, the Immigration and Naturalization Act's text
vests the Attorney General of the United States with the authority
to adjust nonimmigrants' statuses, but Congress has since
transferred that authority to the Secretary of Homeland Security.
See 

(b)(5), 557; 1 USCIS, Policy Manual, pt. E, ch.
8, § B(3) n.39 (2024).


                              - 4 -
"record    the   [noncitizen]'s    lawful    admission    for     permanent

residence as of the date" of approval.        Second, the DOS Secretary

"shall reduce by one the number of the preference visas authorized

to be issued" to "the class to which the [noncitizen] is chargeable

for the fiscal year then current."        

(b).

           As § 1255(b) indicates, the total number of immigrant

visas that may be issued in each fiscal year is capped by statute.

In addition, the total number of "available" immigrant visas in

each fiscal year is allocated by statute among various categories

of eligible noncitizens.    See 

.

           The type of immigrant visa that each of the plaintiffs

seeks is an "employment-based visa" ("EB visa").         Among EB visas,

there are five statutorily prescribed "preference categories." 

(b).    The category to which each of the plaintiffs

here claims to belong is the second preference category, which is

for   "[p]rofessionals   with     advanced    degrees    or     persons   of

exceptional ability" ("EB2").      

(b).

           The path to obtaining an EB2 visa and becoming a legal

permanent resident is complicated.           Generally, a noncitizen's

U.S.-based employer will first file a labor certification with,

and have that certification approved by, the U.S. Department of

Labor.    See 

; see also 6 USCIS, Policy Manual,

pt. E, ch. 6, § A(1) (2024).        Next, the employer or noncitizen

files a Form I-140 petition to USCIS.         See 

(a),


                                  - 5 -
(c).     For    the     final   step    --   the   one   at    the   heart   of   this

appeal -- the noncitizen, upon approval of her Form I-140 petition,

files a Form I-485 application to USCIS to adjust her status.                        See

generally 

.              If the application is approved, USCIS

grants the applicant legal permanent residency and DOS allocates

an immigrant visa number from the applicable preference category

for the current fiscal year.             

(b).

              When a noncitizen files her Form I-485 application, she

is "placed in a queue with others in her category" because "demand

[for visas] regularly exceeds the supply" due to the applicable

statutory caps on issuance.             Scialabba v. Cuellar de Osorio, 

, 48 (2014) (plurality opinion) (describing the same issue

in the family-based immigrant visa context); see also 3 Gordon et

al.,     Immigration        Law     and      Procedure        § 39.01(2)       (2024).

Applications for adjustment of status that are in the queue are

processed      on   a   "first-come,      first-served        [basis]   within    each

preference category," and an applicant's place in the queue is

marked   by    her      "priority   date."         Scialabba,     573   U.S.    at   48

(plurality opinion); see 

(b).                       An applicant's

"priority date" is either the date on which the labor certification

was filed or, if no certification was filed, the date on which the

Form I-140 petition was filed.                See 

(g)(2); 7

USCIS, Policy Manual, pt. A, ch. 6, § C(3) (2024).




                                         - 6 -
          The        Immigration   and         Naturalization      Act    ("INA")

authorizes DOS to make reasonable estimates of anticipated visa

issuance based on information provided by U.S. consular officers

and USCIS officers.         See 

(g); 

.

Pursuant to that authority, DOS maintains a "Visa Bulletin."                  The

Bulletin, which DOS publishes monthly, sets forth charts for

different types of visas. See Bureau of Consular Affs., U.S. Dep't

of State, Pub. No. 9514, Visa Bulletin: Immigrant Numbers for

September 2024 (2024), https://travel.state.gov/content/dam/visas

/Bulletins/visabulletin_September2024.pdf.

          Each chart lists the relevant visa preference categories

in rows on the far-left side of the chart and the relevant foreign

state in columns at the very top of the chart.               See 

   The spaces

where   the     preference-category            rows    intersect       with   the

foreign-state columns are populated with specific dates.

              When    the   Bulletin    lists     a   date   for   a   particular

preference category and foreign state, the date is "current"

and -- based on DOS's estimate -- a visa is "immediately available"

to applicants whose priority dates are either the same or earlier

than the listed "current" date.          A visa is considered "immediately

available" when the agency or consular officer could issue an

immigrant visa to an applicant without exceeding the statutory

caps imposed by Congress in 

, 1152, and 1153.                 See

Visa Availability and Priority Dates, USCIS (Apr. 29, 2020),


                                       - 7 -
https://www.uscis.gov/green-card/green-card-processes-and-

procedures/visa-availability-and-priority-dates.

             Because dates are deemed to be "current" based on DOS's

estimates regarding visa supply and demand, the dates can vary

between Bulletins.       3 Gordon et al., Immigration Law and Procedure

§ 39.01(2) (2024).       For example, a "current" date may move forward

(i.e.,     indicate    that    visas   are     "immediately    available"   for

later-in-time applicants who joined the queue more recently) if

visa supply increases or visa demand decreases for a given month.

Id.       Alternatively, a "current" date may move backward -- or

"retrogress[]"        (i.e.,   indicate      that    visas   are   "immediately

available" only for earlier applicants who have been in line

longer) -- if visa supply or demand unexpectedly decreases or

increases, respectively, in a given month.               Id.; 7 USCIS, Policy

Manual, pt. A, ch. 6, § C(5) (2024).

                                        B.

             Two of the plaintiffs involved in this appeal, Nikunj

and Anuja Patel, applied for legal permanent residency in the

United States on October 27, 2020.                  The other two plaintiffs,

Monisha Gupta and Swapnil Vijay Kumar Gadkari, applied for legal

permanent residency on October 30, 2020.2              While their Form I-485


      2Legal permanent residency is "the status of having been
lawfully accorded the privilege of residing permanently in the
United States as an immigrant in accordance with the immigration
laws . . . ." 

(a)(20).


                                       - 8 -
applications were pending, Gupta and Gadkari filed suit together

in the U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts,

naming Ur Jaddou, Director of USCIS, as the sole defendant.                  The

Patels separately did the same while their Form I-485 applications

were pending.

           The    respective    complaints     alleged   that   each    of   the

plaintiffs had "taken every step USCIS has requested, suggested,

and required" with respect to their applications, including having

met the eligibility requirements for applying for adjustment that

§ 1255(a) sets forth.    Yet, the complaints alleged, the plaintiffs

continue to wait for a final adjudication by USCIS on their

allegedly "adjudication[-]ready" applications.             For relief, the

plaintiffs sought to compel USCIS to adjudicate their pending Form

I-485 applications.     The District Court subsequently consolidated

the suits for pre-trial proceedings.

           Two months after initiating their suits, the plaintiffs

amended   their    complaints    and   added    Antony   Blinken,      the   DOS

Secretary, as a defendant.        The amended complaints additionally

allege that, on September 6, 2022, DOS issued a memorandum stating

that there were no more available EB2 visas until the end of the

fiscal year because DOS had issued visas up to the maximum amount

permitted by statute.    The amended complaints allege as well that,

due to the decrease in visa supply and lack of corresponding

decrease in visa demand, the "current" dates on the Visa Bulletin


                                   - 9 -
retrogressed from December 1, 2014, to April 1, 2012.           Thus, the

amended complaints allege, no visas were "immediately available"

to the plaintiffs once the new fiscal year started.3

          In the amended complaints, the plaintiffs assert claims

of unlawful withholding and unreasonable delay of agency action

under the APA against both the Director of the USCIS and the

Secretary of the DOS.      The plaintiffs first challenge USCIS's

practice of not adjudicating validly filed Form I-485 applications

until an immigrant visa becomes "immediately available" to the

applicants.   They allege that this practice is barred by 

 and that USCIS's failure to adjudicate the plaintiffs'

applications thus constitutes unlawfully withheld and unreasonably

delayed agency action.    See 

(1).        In addition, the

plaintiffs    challenge   DOS's    policy   regarding    visa    issuance

following USCIS approval. They allege that, even if USCIS approved

an application without a corresponding "immediately available"

visa, DOS would refuse to issue a visa unless one was in fact

"immediately available" to the applicant.        The plaintiffs argue

that, because of § 1255(b), this DOS policy regarding visa issuance

constitutes agency action that is unlawfully withheld.          See id.

          Following the defendants' motions for dismissal and the

parties' cross-motions for summary judgment, the District Court


     3 Gupta and Gadkari's priority date is November 7, 2012.         The
Patels' priority date is June 26, 2014.


                                  - 10 -
granted the defendants' motion to dismiss and denied the parties'

motions for summary judgment as moot in an order dated September

27, 2023. The District Court ruled that the plaintiffs' contention

that 

 prohibits USCIS and DOS from requiring that

an immigrant visa be "immediately available" at the time of

adjudication was without merit.      The District Court therefore held

that the agencies' policy of holding Form I-485 applications for

adjudication until an immigrant visa is "immediately available" to

the applicant is a "decision or action . . . the authority for

which is specified . . . to be in the discretion of . . . the

Secretary       of     Homeland     Security"        under      

(a)(2)(B)(ii), and, accordingly, not subject to judicial

review.   For the same reasons, the District Court also ruled that

the challenged agency action was committed to agency discretion

and thus that the plaintiffs also failed to state claims for

unreasonable delay and unlawful withholding under the APA.               The

plaintiffs timely appealed.

                                    II.

            As a threshold matter, the defendants contend that we

must   affirm    the   dismissal    of      the   plaintiffs'   claims    on

jurisdictional grounds under Article III of the U.S. Constitution.

The defendants argue that is so because the plaintiffs' alleged

injuries are neither traceable to the defendants nor redressable

by a federal court, as those injuries must be for the plaintiffs


                                   - 11 -
to have Article III standing to bring their claims.      See Lujan v.

Defs. of Wildlife, 

 (1992).

              In asserting that the plaintiffs' injuries are traceable

only to statutes enacted by Congress and so not to the challenged

USCIS and DOS policies themselves, the defendants emphasize that

Congress enacted a statutory scheme that imposes various caps on

EB2 issuance.      The defendants then go on to argue that these caps

limit the agencies' ability to meet the plaintiffs' demand for

visas for reasons independent of either the USCIS or the DOS policy

that the plaintiffs challenge.

              The defendants separately contend, for similar reasons,

that the plaintiffs' injuries are not redressable by a federal

court.    The defendants assert that the relief that the plaintiffs

seek     --    faster   adjudication   of   their   applications   by

USCIS -- requires that a visa be "available" to be issued to the

plaintiffs at the time the application is adjudicated by USCIS.

They further assert that, statutorily, the defendants cannot issue

a visa to the applicants outside of their priority date order.

See 

(e).       The defendants contend that it follows

that granting the requested relief would require the defendants to

take one of two paths: violate their statutory obligations or deny

the plaintiffs' applications. Yet, the defendants argue, the first

path is unlawful, and the second path would conflict with the

plaintiffs' interests.       And so, because the defendants contend


                                 - 12 -
that federal courts are without the authority to order the agencies

to issue a visa "before it is [the plaintiffs'] turn," they assert

that the plaintiffs' claims are not redressable by a federal court.

We are not persuaded.

          The plaintiffs allege that (1) they "went from having

EB2 visas immediately available at . . . filing of their adjustment

of status applications to not having an EB2 visa immediately

available to them for years because the 'current date' in the visa

bulletin now predates their priority date [because, in September

2022, the dates retrogressed]"; (2) "USCIS and DOS are unlawfully

withholding final agency actions on Plaintiffs['] applications" by

not acting until a visa is immediately available; and (3) the last

time the priority dates retrogressed in a similar manner "it took

8 years for [the dates] to [become] 'current' again."         They then

allege that the claimed unlawful withholding, and unreasonable

delay, of agency action attributable to the defendants have caused

them a variety of financial, emotional, and professional harms.

These asserted injuries include loss of time and money completing

paperwork to maintain their current status, loss of professional

opportunities   because   they    are     "currently   tied   to   their

[petitioning] employers for work," loss of opportunities to see




                                 - 13 -
family abroad, and ongoing anxiety due to uncertainty over their

future immigration status.

           We   must   take   these   well-pleaded    facts     as   true   and

construe them in the light most favorable to the plaintiffs.                See

Legal Sea Foods, LLC v. Strathmore Ins. Co., 

 (1st

Cir. 2022).     We thus read the plaintiffs to be alleging specific

harms arising from what they assert is the additional time they

must wait for an adjustment of status due to (1) USCIS's decision

to unreasonably delay or withhold action on their applications

until an immigrant visa is "immediately available" to them and (2)

DOS's decision to withhold the issuance of the requested visas

themselves until they are "immediately available." In other words,

at bottom, the plaintiffs assert that they are injured by the

agencies' reliance on policies that violate § 1255, as they argue

that so long as a visa is "available" -- and thus even if it is

not   "immediately     available"     --   § 1255   precludes    USCIS      from

delaying adjudication, and DOS from withholding visa allocation,

on the grounds that the plaintiffs are challenging.

           To be sure, the defendants argue that their challenged

policies are required by other statutory mandates, such as the

statutorily established visa caps or the statutory requirement

that visas be issued in priority-date order.           But the plaintiffs

dispute these assertions.      As a result, the defendants' arguments

regarding traceability and redressability reduce to arguments


                                    - 14 -
about the meaning of applicable statutes and the limits those

statutes impose on the defendants' behavior.               Accordingly, those

arguments are properly treated as arguments about the merits of

the plaintiffs' claims, rather than questions of Article III

standing,    because,   for    purposes      of   the   Article    III   standing

inquiry, we must "accept as valid the merits of [the plaintiffs']

legal claims," Fed. Election Comm'n v. Cruz, 

, 298

(2022), and "be careful not to decide the questions on the merits

for or against the plaintiff[s]," City of Waukesha v. EPA, 

 (D.C. Cir. 2003).

             Thus, we see no basis for concluding that the harms the

plaintiffs allege are not fairly traceable to USCIS's policy of

abstaining from acting upon the plaintiffs' applications and DOS's

policy of abstaining from issuing them visas.                Nor do we see why

the relief sought -- an injunction barring USCIS and DOS from

applying these policies to the plaintiffs -- would fail to redress

those harms.    See Antilles Cement Corp. v. Fortuno, 

   (1st   Cir.   2012)     ("To   carry    its   burden    of   establishing

redressability, [plaintiff] need only show that a favorable ruling




                                     - 15 -
could potentially lessen its injury; it need not definitively

demonstrate that a victory would completely remedy the harm.").

            Finally, the District Court rejected the defendants'

argument below that the plaintiffs had not suffered an injury in

fact.    We apprehend no error in that conclusion either.4

                                     III.

            The defendants separately contend that, even if the

plaintiffs have Article III standing, there are statutory bars to

the exercise of jurisdiction that require their claims to be

dismissed.    The defendants identify two such statutory bars.

            The   first    is   

(a)(2)(B)(i),     which

precludes review of "any judgment regarding the granting of relief

under    section . . . 1255."        Relying    on   the   Supreme   Court's

"expansive" reading of the statute's use of the term "any" and

"regarding," Patel v. Garland, 

 (2022), the

defendants assert that the challenged USCIS and DOS policies are

"judgments" within the meaning of § 1252(a)(2)(B)(i), and thus

shielded from review.

            The   second   is   

(a)(2)(B)(ii),      which

precludes review of "any other decision or action of the Attorney



     4 The cases on which the defendants rely, see Yu v. Chertoff,
No. 07cv0296, 

 (S.D. Cal. Feb. 12, 2008); Museboyina
v. Jaddou, 4:22CV3169, 

 (D. Neb. Feb. 1, 2023), are
either distinguishable or unpersuasive for the reasons given
above.


                                    - 16 -
General or the Secretary of Homeland Security the authority for

which is specified . . . to be in the discretion of the Attorney

General or the Secretary of Homeland Security, other than the

granting of relief under" 

(a). The defendants argue

that their pre-adjudication policies are "decision[s]" that are

"specified" to be in the DHS Secretary's discretion -- and thus

unreviewable   --   because   § 1255(a)   states   that   a   noncitizen's

status "may be adjusted by the [Secretary of Homeland Security],

in his discretion and under such regulations as he may prescribe."

The defendants then go on to contend that because § 701(a)(2) of

the APA similarly precludes review of agency action "committed to

agency discretion by law," dismissal of the plaintiffs' claims is

required.

            We need not resolve these disputes.           Rather, we may

assume there are no statutory bars to the exercise of jurisdiction

and proceed directly to the merits, because, for the reasons we

will next explain, we resolve the merits in the defendants' favor.

See Doe v. Town of Lisbon, 

 (1st Cir. 2023)

(holding that, when a case poses a question of statutory, rather

than Article III, jurisdiction, "the question of jurisdiction need

not be resolved if a decision on the merits will favor the party

challenging the court's jurisdiction") (citation and internal

quotation marks omitted).




                                 - 17 -
                                          IV.

            The plaintiffs' claims chiefly implicate § 1255(a) and

§ 1255(b).       As we will explain, we are not persuaded that either

of these provisions prohibits the agency policies that are the

target of the claims.

                                          A.

            We    begin    with    the    plaintiffs'      claims     against   the

Director of the USCIS. The claims allege that § 1255(a) bars USCIS

from declining to adjudicate adjustment applications until an

immigrant visa is "immediately available" to the applicant -- a

practice that we refer to as the "abeyance policy."                     We cannot

agree, as we are not persuaded by the plaintiffs' contention that

§ 1255(a)    sets    forth   not    only        the   eligibility   criteria    for

adjustment of status, but also the asserted constraints on the

process   by     which    USCIS    may,    in     its   discretion,    adjudicate

applications for such adjustment.

            Section 1255(a) provides that the status of a noncitizen

"may be adjusted by the [Secretary of Homeland Security], in his

discretion and under such regulations as he may prescribe, to that

of a[] [noncitizen] lawfully admitted for permanent residence if

(1) the [noncitizen] makes an application for such adjustment, (2)

the [noncitizen] is eligible to receive an immigrant visa and is

admissible to the United States for permanent residence, and (3)

an immigrant visa is immediately available to him at the time his


                                     - 18 -
application is filed."                    

(a).       Thus, by its plain

terms, § 1255(a) neither requires the Secretary of DHS to adjust

the    status       of    a    noncitizen      nor   purports      to    address    how    the

Secretary must adjudicate an application for adjustment that is

filed.     Rather, the text of § 1255(a) provides only that the

Secretary       may      adjust       a    noncitizen's    status       as    a   matter   of

discretion under such regulations as the Secretary may prescribe

if the noncitizen has applied for adjustment and meets certain

criteria for applying.

               To    be       sure,   one     of   the   criteria       for   applying     for

adjustment of status that § 1255(a) sets forth is that an immigrant

visa    must    be       "immediately         available"    at     the    time     that    the

application for adjustment is filed.                     See id.    But as to what must

happen once that criterion for applying for adjustment has been

met and an application for adjustment has been filed, the text of

§ 1255(a) is silent, except for providing that the Secretary of

DHS may in his discretion adjust the applicant's status pursuant

to regulations.               Thus, we do not see how, based on § 1255(a)'s

text, the provision may be understood to bar USCIS's abeyance

policy, as that policy only concerns when, after an adjustment

application has been filed, an application will be adjudicated.

See Babaria v. Blinken, 

 (9th Cir. 2023) (holding

that § 1255(a) provides specific guidance only on eligibility

requirements and "vests the government with considerable leeway in


                                              - 19 -
establishing the process [by which it adjudicates applications for

adjustments of status]").

          The plaintiffs acknowledge that, on its face, § 1255(a)

establishes "eligibility criteria" for applying for adjustment,

without also identifying any criteria for the process by which

filed applications for adjustment are to be adjudicated by USCIS.

But the plaintiffs contend that, despite what the text of § 1255(a)

appears to indicate, the statutory and legislative history to that

provision "makes abundantly clear that Congress rejected [the

defendants'] . . . interpretation more than 45 years ago" when it

amended the statute to tie visa availability to "the time [at which

the noncitizen's] application is fil[ed]" rather than approved.

          The plaintiffs point out that, in previous iterations of

§ 1255(a), the provision explicitly required that an immigrant

visa be "immediately available" to an applicant "at the time his

application [was] approved."   See Immigration and Nationality Act,

(a), 

, 217 (1952); H. J. Res.

397, 

, 

, 505 (1960).      They

further note that, in 1976, the precursor to § 1255(a) was amended

to require only that a visa be "immediately available" at the time

of filing.   The plaintiffs argue that in so amending the statute

Congress must be understood to have rejected, albeit implicitly,

"the time of approval as the moment when a visa number must be

current" in favor of the "date the application was filed."


                               - 20 -
            To support this reading of § 1255(a), the plaintiffs

direct our attention to a House Judiciary Committee report that

proposed the 1976 amendment to § 1255.              The report explains that

the amendment's purpose was to "designate[] the date used in

determining the availability of a visa number as the date the

application is filed, rather than the approval date."                H.R. Rep.

No. 94-1553, at 15 (1976).            The plaintiffs assert that this

explanation shows that in enacting § 1255(a) Congress made an

"intentional policy decision" to "reject[] the requirement to have

a current visa number at approval."               The plaintiffs then deduce

that in enacting § 1255(a) Congress meant to preclude USCIS from

relying on visa availability at the time of approval for any

purpose.

            The plaintiffs also attempt to buttress their reading of

§ 1255(a)    by   invoking    the    regulations       that   implement    that

provision.    They note that those regulations tie eligibility for

adjustment of status to immediate visa availability at the time of

filing, rather than to immediate visa availability at the time of

the   approval    of   the   adjustment      of    status.     See   

(a), 245.1(g)(1), 245.2(a)(2)(i).               The plaintiffs then

contend that, by failing to require visa availability at the time

of approval in the regulations implementing § 1255(a), "USCIS has

interpreted congressional intent to require only a current visa at

filing."


                                    - 21 -
              In sum, the plaintiffs argue that, even though the face

of § 1255(a) speaks only to eligibility to apply for adjustment of

status, "Congress spoke to the precise issue here."                    By changing

the "eligibility criterion" under § 1255(a) and "designat[ing] the

time of filing as the moment when a visa number must be current,"

the plaintiffs argue, Congress necessarily                      (though impliedly)

precluded USCIS from holding applications until a visa would be

immediately available at the time of approval.

              We cannot agree.         As the Ninth Circuit has detailed,

under the pre-1976 statutory scheme, "[i]f circumstances changed

while   the    application      was    pending       --   for    example,   if   the

applicant's . . . job ended, and the immigrant visa petition was

consequently      denied   or    revoked        --    the   statute     foreclosed

adjustment of status."       Babaria, 

 (emphasis added).

It thus appears that         the 1976 amendment,            by tying statutory

eligibility to the time of filing rather than the time of approval,

was   simply    addressing      this    specific      problem      concerning    the

approval of an application for adjustment.                      See id.; see also

Pei-Chi Tien v. Immigr. & Naturalization Serv., 

,

1329 n.13 (5th Cir. Unit A Mar. 1981) ("The requirement that an

immigrant visa must be immediately available to the [noncitizen]

at the time his application is 'approved' was changed to the time

his application is 'filed,' perhaps indicating Congress' awareness

of the delays involved prior to agency action on an application.").


                                       - 22 -
As a result, we fail to see how the 1976 amendment supports the

plaintiffs'      position   regarding    the       proper   interpretation      of

§ 1255(a) with respect to the timing of the mere adjudication of

an   application.       Indeed,   as    we    have      emphasized,      the   1976

amendment -- like § 1255(a) itself -- does not on its face speak

to the timing of the adjudication of an application for adjustment.

           This understanding of the 1976 amendment draws support

from a committee report on a precursor to the 1976 bill.                       That

report notes the view of the U.S. Department of Justice ("DOJ")

that "[§ 1255(a)] [was] . . . amended to establish eligibility for

an immigrant visa at the time the application is filed rather than

at the time it is approved."         H.R. Rep. No. 93-108, at 14 (1973)

(emphasis added).      And the report explains that the DOJ supported

this change precisely because it would alleviate the harms suffered

by applicants with respect to the approval of an application for

adjustment of status.       Id.

           The     plaintiffs'    attempt      to       enlist     the   statute's

regulations also fails to support their position.                And that is so,

even if we were to assume that regulations promulgated to implement

the statutory provision could inform our understanding of the

meaning of the provision itself.

           The regulations that the plaintiffs reference pertain by

their plain terms only to an applicant's eligibility to file an

application      for   adjustment.           See    

(a),


                                  - 23 -
245.1(g)(1), 245.2(a)(2)(i).            Thus, the regulations, too, do not

speak to the process for adjudicating an application once filed by

an eligible applicant.

           In a final bid to support their reading of § 1255(a),

the plaintiffs invoke the overall structure of the INA.                            Here,

they point to other statutory provisions -- 

(b)

and 1153(d), (e), and (h)(1).               They argue that each of these

provisions is rendered "unworkable" by the USCIS abeyance policy

that they challenge.         As a result, they reason, Congress must have

contemplated     that   no    such     policy     could     be      implemented.       It

therefore follows, they contend, that § 1255(a) must be construed

not to authorize the abeyance policy, even though the plain terms

of   § 1255(a)    impose       no    such   limitation           on    that    policy's

implementation.     We disagree with this logic.

           The plaintiffs' structural argument regarding § 1255(b)

proceeds as follows.           Under § 1255(b), once USCIS approves an

adjustment     application,      DOS    must      "reduce      by     one   the   number

of . . . preference      visas       authorized     to    be     issued"      under   the

statutory caps "for the fiscal year then current."                             

(b).     If § 1255(a) permits USCIS to require that a visa be

"immediately available" to an applicant for adjustment of status

before   the   application       itself     may    be     adjudicated,        then    the

plaintiffs assert there would be no risk that USCIS would run afoul

of the statutory caps in approving such an application.                           Hence,


                                       - 24 -
the plaintiffs argue, by referring in § 1255(b) to these statutory

caps, Congress was only "assum[ing] that there will be a visa

number   available"   at    approval,     regardless   of   whether    one   is

"immediately available" at that time.

            By its terms, however, § 1255(b) governs the processes

that occur "[u]pon the approval of an application for adjustment

made under" § 1255(a).        Id.    The provision thus speaks only to

post-approval matters and not the process for adjudicating an

application for adjustment.

            To be sure, § 1255(b)'s reference to the statutory caps

on visa issuance does show that Congress was cognizant of the

limits that those caps place on visas being issued for approved

applications for adjustment.         We fail to see, however, how the

reference   to   those     caps   shows   that,   in   § 1255(a),     Congress

authorized USCIS to delay adjudication of such applications only

to the extent that the caps themselves would require that delay.

            The plaintiffs also harness their structural argument to

(d), which entitles certain family members of an

applicant to immigration status. Once again, we are not persuaded.

            Under § 1153(d), certain "spouse[s] or child[ren]" who

"accompany[]" or later "follow[] to join" an applicant to the

United States are "entitled to the same status, and the same order




                                    - 25 -
of consideration" as the applicant.5                    Id.    In such cases, the

spouse or child is said to be a "derivative" of the "principal"

applicant       and    beneficiary     of    the    principal's      immigrant      visa

petition.       7 USCIS, Policy Manual, pt. A, ch. 6, § C(6) (2024).

            The       plaintiffs     argue    that,     in    affording   derivative

family members the "same status" and "order of consideration" as

the principal in § 1153(d), Congress also meant to entitle the

derivative beneficiaries to the immediate issuance of an immigrant

visa at the same time as the principal applicant, regardless of

whether that visa is immediately available to the derivative

beneficiary.          The plaintiffs then go on to argue that USCIS's

abeyance policy conflicts with that mandate because USCIS could

approve     a    principal's         application      and     the    bulletin      could

subsequently          retrogress,          thus     delaying        the   derivative

beneficiary's         receipt   of    an    immigrant    visa.6       Based   on    this



     5   Section 1153(d) reads in full:
            A spouse or child as defined in subparagraph (A), (B),
            (C), (D), or (E) of section 1101(b)(1) of this title
            shall, if not otherwise entitled to an immigrant status
            and the immediate issuance of a visa under subsection
            (a), (b), or (c), be entitled to the same status, and
            the same order of consideration provided in the
            respective subsection, if accompanying or following to
            join, the spouse or parent.
     6 We note that at least one circuit has questioned whether
retrogression could, in fact, solely impact the derivative
beneficiary's application under USCIS's current policy.        See
Babaria, 

. But because the defendants do not appear



                                           - 26 -
purported conflict, the plaintiffs assert that § 1153(d) supports

their reading of § 1255(a) -- namely, that USCIS is precluded from

considering immediate visa availability at the time of approval.

          The text of § 1153(d), however, says nothing about when

an application -- derivative or otherwise -- must be adjudicated.

Nor do the plaintiffs develop an argument as to why we must

construe § 1153(d) to implicitly place the limit on the timing of

adjudication that they discern.   In any event, even if we were to

assume that § 1153(d) requires DOS to immediately issue a visa to

a derivative beneficiary upon the principal's approval, it is not

clear why that requirement would have any bearing on USCIS's

decision to delay adjudication of the principal's application in

the first place. Yet the plaintiffs fail to explain their apparent

contention to the contrary.

          The plaintiffs next point to § 1153(e), which requires

that visas be issued in priority date order.   But the requirement

that DOS issue visas in order of priority dates says nothing about

the time at which USCIS must adjudicate the application so long as

the agency is proceeding in the proper chronological order.   Thus,

we do not see -- nor do the plaintiffs explain -- why we must

conclude that § 1153(e) mandates the plaintiffs' interpretation of

§ 1255(a).


to contest this point, we assume for our purposes that such a
scenario is possible.


                              - 27 -
            The plaintiffs' next argument is that a provision of the

Child   Status    Protection     Act    ("CSPA"),   

(h)(1),

demands a conclusion other than the one to which we arrive.              This

argument is similarly without merit.

            In general, the CSPA "ensures that the time Government

officials have spent processing immigration papers will not count

against"    a    child   who    seeks     derivative    beneficiary   status.

Scialabba, 573 U.S. at 45 (plurality opinion).              Under the INA, a

"child" cannot claim derivative-beneficiary status unless he is

under the age of twenty-one.             

(d), 1101(b)(1).

Thus, a child who is eligible for derivative status when his parent

files an adjustment application may become ineligible due to the

"simple passage of time."         Scialabba, 573 U.S. at 51 (plurality

opinion).   To prevent children from "aging out" of eligibility due

to administrative delays beyond their control, the CSPA creates a

method for calculating the child's age, referred to as the "CSPA

age."   7 USCIS, Policy Manual, pt. A, ch. 7, § A (2024).

            In the case of employment-based visas, the "CSPA age" is

calculated by subtracting the period from which the child's visa

petition was pending from the child's age on "the date on which an

immigrant visa number becomes available for" their parent.                  

(h)(1).           In other words, the CSPA "freezes" the

derivative beneficiary's age until a visa is "available."




                                       - 28 -
                 The plaintiffs contend that § 1153(h)(1) confirms their

reading of § 1255(a) because § 1153(h)(1) "assumes" that a visa

need only be available to the child at the time of the filing of

the application for adjustment of status. In support of this view,

the plaintiffs direct our attention to the USCIS Policy Manual,

which,      in    their      view,   shows    that   Congress     intended      for   the

"CSPA to freeze the child's age when the visa is current and

adjustment of status application is filed."                       From that premise,

they contend that it follows that Congress also assumed that a

visa need not be immediately available at the time USCIS approves

an application for adjustment of status.

                 Section 1153(h)(1), on its face, however, merely sets a

noncitizen's "age" for the purposes of the child's eligibility for

adjustment.           It thus does not speak to the relevant issue here,

which concerns when an application for the adjustment of status

must be adjudicated.             Indeed, the plaintiffs do not explain why

the timing of the adjudication of such an application interferes

in    any    way      with     the   setting    of     the     child's   "age"    under

§ 1153(h)(1).

                 In    sum,    USCIS's       decision    to      hold    in     abeyance

applications          that    lack   an   immediately        available   visa    is   not

precluded by § 1255(a), considering the statute's text, history,

and   structure.          Because    this     policy    is     within    the    agency's

discretion, the plaintiffs have failed to state a claim under the


                                          - 29 -
APA for unlawful withholding and unreasonable delay against the

Director of the USCIS.

                                      B.

          The plaintiffs finally           argue that   DOS's independent

requirement that a visa be "immediately available" at the time of

the approval of an application for adjustment to permanent legal

residence status violates § 1255(b).          They assert that, even if

this Court were to compel USCIS to adjudicate their applications

and their applications were approved, DOS would refuse to issue

them immigrant visas because those visas are not immediately

available.   Because § 1255(b) states that DOS "shall" allocate a

visa number upon approval of an application for adjustment, the

plaintiffs   contend   that   DOS's    refusal   to   issue   an   available

immigrant visa to an approved applicant would be unlawful.

          As we have explained, however, we conclude that USCIS's

adjudication policy is not barred by § 1255 or any other statute

to which the plaintiffs refer. We thus we see no basis for

concluding that DOS's present application of its visa issuance

policy is barred by § 1255(b).7       Under USCIS's current policy, the


     7 As we noted in our discussion of Article III standing, the
defendants contend that even if § 1255(a) required USCIS to
adjudicate   the   plaintiffs'   applications,    § 1153(e)   would
nonetheless bar DOS from issuing the plaintiffs visas before they
become immediately available to them. Because, for the reasons
explained above, we conclude that § 1255(a) does not prohibit USCIS
from instituting its abeyance policy, we need not address whether
that is the case.


                                 - 30 -
situation the plaintiffs contemplate cannot come to pass -- if an

application   is   approved   by    USCIS,   a   visa   is   "immediately

available."   And under DOS's visa issuance policy, if a visa is

"immediately available," DOS will issue a visa number.           So, for

every approved adjustment application, DOS will issue a visa

number.8   Thus, the plaintiffs have not stated a claim under the

APA against the Secretary of the DOS.

                                     V.

           We are not without sympathy for the plaintiffs and the

position in which they find themselves. After having lived, worked

in, and contributed to this country for, in most cases, over a

decade, Gupta, Gadkari, and the Patels have waited nearly four

years for their Form I-485 applications to be adjudicated.         Still,

the sole ground for the plaintiffs' claims under the APA in this

litigation is that § 1255 precludes USCIS and DOS from adjudicating

their applications pursuant to the agencies' abeyance policy.9



     8  We do not address -- because we have no need to
address -- the circumstance in which USCIS changes its abeyance
policy, such that DOS's policy regarding visa issuance would pose
an independent bar to visa issuance.
     9 At oral argument and in their reply brief, the plaintiffs
aver that USCIS's and DOS's holding policy results in visa wastage
and does not make sense.    In other words, they appear to argue
that the agencies' practices are arbitrary or capricious under the
APA. Insofar as that contention is divorced from their argument
that the agencies are statutorily prohibited from engaging in their
current practice, that argument is waived. Sparkle Hill, Inc. v.
Interstate Mat Corp., 

 (1st Cir. 2015). We thus



                                   - 31 -
That ground, for the foregoing reasons, is meritless. The judgment

of the District Court is affirmed.




express no view as to whether such a challenge could succeed were
this court to have jurisdiction over it.


                             - 32 -