United States Court of Appeals
                     For the First Circuit
No. 24-1280

                     AKEISH JOHNIOY MORGAN,

                           Petitioner,

                               v.

              MERRICK B. GARLAND, Attorney General,

                           Respondent.


               PETITION FOR REVIEW OF AN ORDER OF
                THE BOARD OF IMMIGRATION APPEALS


                             Before

               Gelpí and Rikelman, Circuit Judges,
                      and Katzmann,* Judge.


          SangYeob Kim, with whom Gilles Bissonnette and American
Civil Liberties Union of New Hampshire were on brief, for
petitioner.

          Matthew A. Spurlock, Trial Attorney, Office of
Immigration Litigation, with whom Brian M. Boynton, Principal
Deputy Acting Assistant Attorney General, Civil Division, and
Brianne Wheelan Cohen, Senior Litigation Counsel, Office of
Immigration Litigation, were on brief, for respondent.


                        November 5, 2024




     * Of the United States Court of International Trade, sitting
by designation.
              KATZMANN,    Judge.      Petitioner    Akeish   Johnioy    Morgan

("Morgan") is a national and citizen of Jamaica who illegally

entered the United States without inspection on June 11, 2022.

Some       two weeks prior, on May 27, 2022, a Jamaican justice of the

peace had issued a warrant for his arrest for the charges of

murder, unlawful possession of a firearm, and wounding with intent

to do grievous bodily injury.          Morgan now seeks our review of an

order by the Board of Immigration Appeals ("BIA") dismissing his

appeal      from   an    Immigration    Judge's     ("IJ")    denial    of   his

applications       for    asylum,   statutory     withholding     of    removal

("Statutory Withholding"), and relief (both withholding ("CAT

Withholding") and deferral ("CAT Deferral") of removal)1 under the




       Asylum, withholding of removal, and deferral of removal are
       1

distinct forms of relief. As between asylum and withholding of
removal, we have explained that "they afford aliens distinct types
of benefits.    In particular, asylum, though obtainable upon a
less-demanding showing, 'affords broader benefits' to the
recipient than does withholding of removal." Garcia v. Sessions,

 (1st Cir. 2017) (quoting INS v. Cardoza-Fonseca,

, 428 n.6 (1987)).        As between withholding and
deferral, the Fourth Circuit has explained as follows:
       An important difference between withholding of removal
       and deferral of removal is the ease in which the deferral
       may be terminated. To terminate withholding of removal,
       the government must move to reopen the case, meet the
       standards   for    reopening,   and   establish    by   a
       preponderance of the evidence that the alien is no longer
       eligible for withholding. In contrast, the regulations
       provide a streamlined termination process for deferral
       of removal.
Turkson v. Holder, 

, 525 n.1 (4th Cir. 2012).


                                       -2-
U.S.       regulations    implementing    the     Convention      Against    Torture

("CAT").       The IJ determined Morgan to be ineligible for asylum,

Statutory Withholding, and CAT Withholding because of the warrants

issued       against     him   in    Jamaica.         The   BIA    affirmed     this

determination, concluding that these warrants, alongside other

supporting      evidence,      barred   Morgan's      eligibility     for    non-CAT

Deferral relief as there were "serious reasons for believing that

the    respondent      committed    a   serious    nonpolitical      crime    before

arriving in the United States."

               The BIA also affirmed the IJ's determination that Morgan

was ineligible for CAT Deferral because (1) the beatings that

Morgan claimed to have suffered at the hands of police in Jamaica

did not constitute past torture and because (2) Morgan failed to

demonstrate a sufficient likelihood that he would be tortured upon

his removal to Jamaica.

               We         conclude             that         the             agency's2

serious-nonpolitical-crime finding is supported by substantial

evidence, and accordingly sustain its determination that Morgan is

ineligible for asylum, Statutory Withholding, and CAT Withholding.

But the agency’s likelihood-of-future-torture finding, which forms

the basis of its determination that Morgan is ineligible for CAT


       "When discussing the BIA and IJ's decisions as a unit, we
       2

refer to them jointly as 'the agency.'" Ferreira v. Garland, 

 (1st Cir. 2024).    We use more specific references
where appropriate.


                                         -3-
Deferral, rests on an erroneously narrow legal definition of

torture.     We accordingly grant Morgan's petition insofar as it

pertains to the CAT Deferral determination, and remand to the BIA

to make a likelihood-of-future-torture determination that accounts

for the proper definition.

                                        I.

            Morgan entered the United States via Mexico on June 11,

2022. He was arrested on April 14, 2023, in Hartford, Connecticut,

by officers of U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement ("ICE")

and charged with alien inadmissibility.               See generally 

.     Morgan,      with   the   assistance    of    counsel,    conceded

removability in a written pleading but applied for relief from

removal in the forms of asylum, Statutory Withholding, and CAT

Withholding.

            In an affidavit he submitted with his application for

these forms of relief, Morgan stated that he was "wanted for

murdering"    a   person     in   Jamaica     who   was   affiliated    with   an

organization called the "Bus Head Gang" (the "Gang").                   This, he

maintained, was a "trap from the Government of Jamaica, and the

police   against    me."      Morgan    acknowledged       that   a   murder   had

occurred, but claimed he was in a different area at the time it

took place.       In the application itself, he stated that "[t]he

Government of Jamaica wants to put me in jail[ ]and get killed by

[political party–affiliated] gang members in jail" and that "I am


                                        -4-
being framed because the government would like to torture me."

Morgan's affidavit recounted a series of threats and assaults

against him and his family by gang members and gang-affiliated

local police officers in Jamaica.3

              Morgan was taken into ICE custody pending the outcome of

his removal proceeding on account of what              the Department of

Homeland Security (“DHS”) stated was "the risk to public safety

due to the underlying conduct of the . . . Jamaican criminal arrest

warrant." Morgan appeared before the IJ four times between May and

November of 2023, and he was represented by counsel on each of

these occasions.      Morgan testified on his own behalf during the

third of these appearances, which took place on October 10, 2023.

                 A. Morgan's Presentation Before the IJ

              In his testimony before the IJ, Morgan elaborated on the

facts    he   recounted   in   the   affidavit   he   submitted   with   his

application for relief from removability.         He testified that when


     3  In this affidavit, Morgan asserted a greater degree of
active cooperation between the police and the gang than what he
later asserted in his testimony before the IJ. For example, he
stated in the affidavit that on January 1, 2022, he was assaulted
by the same policeman to whom he had earlier that day reported
that a different officer was cooperating with the local gang -- and
that the officer who was the subject of this report was also
present on the scene of the assault. But in his testimony, which
is summarized below, Morgan made no reference to the identities of
the officers who assertedly assaulted him. The IJ directly asked
him, "[a]nd these were police officers? Who were these people?"
But instead of identifying the officers, as he had in the
affidavit, Morgan stated that "[t]hey are police officers" who are
"not in the best interest of the, of the law abiding citizens."


                                     -5-
he was living in Jamaica, he and his family suffered mistreatment

at the hands of both Jamaican law enforcement and the Gang, a

politically   affiliated   but     extrajudicial   armed    group.      This

claimed    mistreatment    falls    into   three    categories:       direct

mistreatment by law enforcement, direct mistreatment by the Gang,

and acquiescence by law enforcement to direct mistreatment by the

Gang.    Morgan presented the following narrative in his testimony:

           When Morgan was living in Jamaica, the Jamaican Labor

Party ("JLP") outfitted and "sent" members of the Gang to Roaring

River, the area where Morgan lived, in order to "force the voters

to vote for the JLP." The Gang, led by a man named Odene4 Marshall,

would "terrorize people and extort people."                The Gang    began

targeting members of Morgan's family in 2019.                Gang    members

"terroriz[ed]" Morgan's brother Oquive, who is gay, and who also

refused to "pay [the Gang] to live in the community."                 A Gang

member named Kilipe shot and injured Morgan's cousin Calvin in

order to "send a message to Oquive."

           On one occasion, the members of the Gang assaulted Morgan

himself.    Two Gang members, including Marshall, approached Morgan

outside of a supermarket and repeatedly hit him.               During the

beating, the attackers issued verbal threats to Oquive, who was



     4 The spelling of this name varies throughout the record. We
refer to Marshall by his last name in the remainder of this
opinion.


                                    -6-
not at the scene, on account of his sexual orientation.                   After the

assault, Morgan went to a hospital, where he received stiches to

his head and was treated for a fractured skull.

            Morgan     reported   the    assault       to   the   local    police,

describing to them the identities of his assailants.                But although

the police made verbal promises to investigate further, they did

not meaningfully respond.         Then, after a further attack by the

Gang on Oquive, Morgan's family contacted the Jamaica Defense Force

to seek protection from the Gang.             The police, however, informed

the Gang of this communication.          The Gang retaliated by assaulting

two of Morgan's cousins and Morgan's fiancée.                     The Gang also

poisoned Morgan's family's livestock.

            Then, on January 1, 2021, police officers holding "long

guns" attacked and threatened Morgan during a traffic stop.                  After

ordering Morgan to exit his car, they beat him with their guns and

a baton.    They said (in Morgan's words) that "they want to kill me

right here."     One of the officers ripped off one of Morgan's

earrings, tearing Morgan's left ear.            The officers warned Morgan

against    reporting    the   assault    to    other    law   enforcement,     and

attempted to extort Morgan, stating that Morgan "should pay [his]

dues or leave the community as soon as possible."                 In addition to

the injury to his ear, Morgan received injuries to his shoulder

and knees, which Morgan testified were still apparent at the time

of the removal hearing.


                                        -7-
            After   what   Morgan    testified     was   a    further    apparent

threat against him by an unidentified gunman on a farm in Roaring

River, Morgan left Jamaica for the United States on June 6, 2022.

            In addition to providing the narrative set forth above,

Morgan   submitted    letter    affirmations      from   family    members    and

acquaintances in support of his applications for relief.                  Several

witnesses,     including       Morgan's      brother,        sister,     fiancée,

sister-in-law, and friend, also testified on behalf of Morgan.

                           B. The IJ's Decision

            The IJ denied Morgan's applications for all the forms of

relief he primarily sought: asylum, Statutory Withholding, and CAT

Withholding. She denied these applications on account of evidence,

submitted    by     DHS,   that     Morgan    committed       certain    serious

nonpolitical      crimes   while    still    in   Jamaica.       The    submitted

documents implicate Morgan in a shooting attack in Jamaica on May

26, 2022, during which a man named Oneil Rodney was killed5 and

Marshall was injured.        They include two DHS I-213 forms, dated

April 13 and June 13, 2023, that together detail Morgan's arrest

in Hartford, Connecticut, as well as his status as a fugitive from

criminal prosecution in Jamaica.          They also include three Jamaican

warrants on information for Morgan's arrest, one for each charged




     5 During his testimony, Morgan identified the man who was
killed in this attack as Kilipe, who Morgan claimed shot his cousin
Calvin Cunningham.


                                      -8-
offense ("the Warrants"), which were issued on May 27, 2022, by a

justice of the peace in Westmoreland, Jamaica.

            DHS also submitted a Jamaican police report dated March

20, 2023 (the "Police Report"), which details the death by shooting

of Rodney and the injury by shooting of Marshall on May 26, 2022.

The Police Report names Morgan as one of four suspects and notes

that he is a fugitive, although it does not precisely describe the

basis of this identification.      It identifies an eyewitness and

states, in part, as follows:

            The scene was visited by Inspector B. Gentle and
            other Police personnel from Savanna-la-mar and
            Whithorn Police Station and processed by Detective
            Corporal C. Hamilton assigned to the Are 1
            Technical Services Division where Eleven (11) 9mm
            spend [sic] casings, two expended bullets, one
            damaged bullet and five blood samples were
            retrieved.   Consequently Warrants on Information
            were prepared for all four men.

            Finally, DHS presented a brief Jamaican press report

detailing the shooting attack, which does not identify Morgan by

name.

            Having   denied   Morgan's   applications   for   asylum,

Statutory Withholding, and CAT Withholding, the IJ proceeded to

consider Morgan's eligibility for CAT Deferral.     The IJ concluded

that Morgan, even here, did not meet "his burden of establishing

[that] he more likely than not would face torture if returned to

Jamaica."




                                 -9-
                            C. Morgan's BIA Appeal

            Morgan appealed the IJ's decision to the BIA.                       In his

brief    before       the         BIA,     he        argued      that     the       IJ's

serious-nonpolitical-crime determination relied on evidence that

was insufficient to establish probable cause.                    Morgan also argued

that the IJ's determination of his ineligibility for CAT Deferral

was erroneous.       Specifically, he contended that the IJ ignored

evidence of Morgan's "past persecution by the gang and by the

police officers," and that "the IJ did not refer to the record

evidence that supportably shows that Morgan and his family were

issued death threats by the gang and its affiliates."                          Finally,

Morgan   argued     that    the    IJ    failed      to   provide    Morgan    with   an

opportunity    to    corroborate         his   and    his    supporting      witnesses'

testimony, and that the IJ's adverse credibility determination as

to elements of that testimony was therefore erroneous.

            The BIA dismissed Morgan's appeal in an opinion issued

by   a   single      Appellate          Immigration         Judge.      As     to     the

serious-nonpolitical-crime bar, the BIA explained that Morgan did

"not present[] sufficient persuasive evidence to contradict the

evidence presented by DHS."               The BIA further reasoned that the

Warrants were "sufficient to establish probable cause" and that

Morgan had "not satisfactorily discredited" them.                       The BIA also

affirmed the IJ's determination of Morgan's ineligibility for CAT

Deferral.     The BIA "agree[d] with the [IJ] that the one beating


                                          -10-
[Morgan] sustained by the police did not rise to the level of

torture."    The BIA further concluded that the IJ "permissibly

concluded that the respondent and his family members' testimony

about police acquiescence was not supported by objective evidence

and therefore was insufficient to demonstrate that [Morgan] will

be tortured with the consent or acquiescence of a public official

in Jamaica." The BIA elaborated on this second conclusion, stating

that the IJ "permissibly rejected [Morgan's] testimony and the

testimony of his witnesses as self-interested as it pertained to

the Jamaican police because [Morgan] did not provide sufficient

objective corroborating evidence to support his assertions of

corruption, particularly considering the outstanding warrant for

his arrest."

            This timely petition ensued.

                                 II.

            We have jurisdiction to hear this petition for review

under 

.

            We review the agency's findings of fact and credibility

against a substantial evidence standard, Gómez-Medina v. Barr, 

 (1st Cir. 2020), under which we "will only disturb the

agency's findings if, in reviewing the record as a whole, any

reasonable adjudicator would be compelled to conclude to the

contrary," Barnica-Lopez v. Garland, 

 (1st Cir.

2023) (internal quotation marks and citation omitted); see also 8


                                -11-
U.S.C. §    1252(b)(4)(B).           "[W]e    review    legal    conclusions         de

novo . . . ."     Varela-Chavarria v. Garland, 

 (1st

Cir. 2023).

            In the decision presented for review, "the BIA did not

say that it was adopting the IJ's decision, only that the IJ's

findings were not clearly erroneous."             Aguilar-Escoto v. Garland,

 (1st Cir. 2023).             While we therefore "focus our

review on the BIA's decision," 

 we address the elements of the

IJ's decision that supply necessary context.

                                       III.

            Morgan challenges the agency's determinations that (a)

he   is   ineligible   for       asylum,    Statutory    Withholding,         and   CAT

Withholding because there exist serious reasons to believe that he

committed    a   serious     nonpolitical      crime     and    that    (b)    he    is

ineligible for CAT Deferral.

           A. The Serious Nonpolitical Crime Determination

            We first address Morgan's challenge to the agency's

serious-nonpolitical-crime determination.               A determination that an

applicant     committed      a    serious     nonpolitical      crime    precludes

eligibility      for   asylum,        Statutory        Withholding,      and        CAT

Withholding.     

(b)(2)(A), 1231(b)(3)(B).                     The IJ

and the BIA may determine as much only if "there are serious

reasons for believing that the alien has committed a serious




                                       -12-
nonpolitical     crime      outside     the      United     States."          

§ 1158(b)(2)(A)(iii); see also id. § 1231(b)(3)(B)(iii).

            Here, there exist "serious reasons," under even a narrow

interpretation of that statutory phrase, to believe that Morgan

committed the crimes with which he was charged in Jamaica.                It is

not so, furthermore, that "any reasonable adjudicator would be

compelled to conclude to the contrary."              Barnica-Lopez, 

 (internal quotation marks and citation omitted).                       The

"serious reasons"        undermining Morgan's asylum and Withholding

claims are apparent from the DHS documents, as well as from

Morgan's own removal-hearing testimony.              Although these documents

do   not   demonstrate    the   precise      means   by   which   Jamaican    law

enforcement came to identify Morgan as a suspect, the IJ reasonably

"infer[red] from the narrative" that the eyewitness to the shooting

attack identified Morgan as one of the four perpetrators.

            In this case, in line with its established practice, the

agency     applied   a    probable-cause       standard6    as    a   means   of


      6Although our circuit has yet to rule on a challenge to this
interpretation, all other circuits that have taken up the question
have either confirmed its lawfulness or held that it is a minimum
standard under the statute.     See, e.g., Whyte v. Garland, No.
22-1032, 

, at *3 (4th Cir. Apr. 26, 2023);
Gonzalez-Castillo v. Garland, 

, 976–77 (9th Cir. 2022)
(quoting Go v. Holder, 

 (9th Cir. 2011));
Barahona v. Garland, 

 (8th Cir. 2021); Khouzam
v. Ashcroft, 

 (2d Cir. 2004). Because no party
challenges the agency's application of the probable-cause standard
here, we have no occasion to pass on its lawfulness under 

(b)(2)(A)(iii) and 1231(b)(3)(B)(iii).


                                      -13-
effectuating the statutory "serious reasons to believe" directive.

See Matter of E-A-, 

 (BIA 2012).   Morgan does

not challenge the use of this standard, which in the context of

U.S. criminal law requires a showing of a "fair probability."

Illinois v. Gates, 

 (1983).7     In this circuit,

"[p]robable cause does not require either certainty or an unusually

high degree of assurance."    United States v. Clark, 

 (1st Cir. 2012) (citing United States v. Winchenbach, 

 (1st Cir. 1999)).   And "[a] finding of probable cause

can be supported by less evidence than is required to support a

conviction, and not all plausible lawful explanations of the

situation must be negated."   United States v. White, 

 (1st Cir. 1985) (internal citation omitted).




     7 The BIA's use of the probable-cause standard as a means of
conducting the "serious reasons" inquiry appears to import caselaw
pertaining to U.S. criminal law outside the immigration context.
See Matter of E-A-, 

 (favorably citing Go, 

, in which the Ninth Circuit in turn cited
non-immigration probable-cause caselaw as a basis for sustaining
the BIA's serious-reasons determination); see also Silva-Pereira
v. Lynch, 

 (9th Cir. 2016) (indirectly quoting
the "fair probability" benchmark laid out in Gates, 

, in assessing the existence of "serious reasons" under 

(b)(2)(A)(iii) and 1231(b)(3)(B)(iii)). While we similarly
turn to our circuit's caselaw on probable cause outside the
immigration context, we do so only to facilitate proper review of
the agency's "serious reasons" analysis -- for which "probable
cause" is the agency's stated benchmark. We offer no view on the
uncontested preliminary question of whether the agency's use of
this benchmark is lawful.


                                -14-
            The    agency       properly    determined    that   the   evidence

submitted    by    DHS     of    Morgan's     criminal    conduct   meets    the

probable-cause     standard.         Taken    together,   the    Warrants,   the

Fugitive Arrest Form, the Police Report establish at least a "fair

probability" that Morgan committed the charged8 murder (as well as

the other charged crimes).          Gates, 

.

            Morgan argues that "the details of these documents do

not independently establish probable cause."               The Police Report,

he asserts, "does not explain how Petitioner was identified as one

of the assailants," and provides "no explanation" as to how the

Jamaican police used the blood samples, casings, and bullets to

implicate him in the murder.               Morgan also argues that it would

have been "logically" difficult for the eyewitness cited in the

Police Report to have identified Morgan as one of the assailants

from the hiding place that she seemingly occupied during the

shooting incident.        He also states that "there is no indictment,"

implying without asserting that under Jamaican law an information

is a less inculpatory charging instrument than an indictment.

            Morgan demands a level of rigor that the probable-cause

standard,     as         the      agency      employs     it     within      the

serious-nonpolitical-crime framework, does not require.                   It is


     8  The Warrants were issued on an information, not an
indictment. This fact is of unknown significance, however, as the
record is silent on the subject of charging documents in the
Jamaican legal system.


                                       -15-
true that the record does not establish precisely how the Jamaican

police came to identify Morgan as a suspect.          But the absence of

such a detail is not fatal to a finding of probable cause.         In the

United     States   legal   system,     at   least,    "probable   cause

determinations are to be informed by the totality of circumstances

and not by the consideration of different pieces of evidence in

isolation."    United States v. Anzalone, 

 (1st Cir.

2019) (citing District of Columbia v. Wesby, 

(2018)); see also Matter of E-A-, 

 (incorporating

the probable-cause standard into the statutory serious-reasons

inquiry).     The IJ and the BIA, faced with the existence of the

Warrants and Police Report, as well as DHS's report that Morgan is

a fugitive, were not required to conduct a granular inquiry into

the individual sources on which the charging documents relied

before concluding that "there are serious reasons to believe that

[Morgan] committed a serious nonpolitical crime outside the United

States."    

(b)(2)(A)(iii), 1231(b)(3)(B)(iii).9      As


     9 Morgan cites the Ninth Circuit case of Gonzalez-Castillo v.
Garland, 

 (9th Cir. 2022), for the proposition
that the Police Report, "on its face, would not meet the probable
cause standard because it does not contain any specific information
on how Petitioner was identified as one of the assailants." This
reliance is misplaced.    The relied-on INTERPOL "Red Notice" at
issue in Gonzalez-Castillo lacked "allegations about the facts of
Gonzalez-Castillo's [alleged criminal conduct], such as the
identity of any victim or where he carried out a 'strike.'" 

The Warrants and Police Report here, by contrast, appear to be
more detailed. More importantly, the agency in this case was also



                                 -16-
was the case in Telyatitskiy v. Holder, "[t]he record reveals that

the IJ considered the totality of the evidence presented, even if

it did not recite that evidence in all its detail."         

 (1st Cir. 2011).

          In addition to the Warrants and Police Report, other

record evidence further supported the agency's probable-cause

determination.   Such evidence includes Morgan's reported status as

a fugitive and the timing of his departure from Jamaica.            Morgan

testified that he left Jamaica on June 6, 2022, which is just over

one week after the May 26, 2022 shooting attack against Marshall

and Rodney. The evidence also includes, as noted by the government

in its presentation before the IJ, the existence of a motive for

Morgan to harm Marshall and Rodney -- who, according to Morgan's

testimony, were each responsible for assaults on Morgan and his

family.   See Silva-Pereira, 

 (citing an asylum

applicant's   apparent    motive   for     revenge   as   among   evidence

"certainly sufficient to constitute probable cause" in the context

of a serious-nonpolitical-crime inquiry).

          Morgan   also   argues    that    "under   Jamaican     law,   the

standard of arresting an individual is reasonable suspicion, not

probable cause," and that "[t]hus, the issuance of the arrest



able to read them in conjunction with other pieces of evidence
that together establish the "serious reasons" required under
§§ 1158(b)(2)(A)(iii) and 1231(b)(3)(B)(iii).


                                   -17-
warrants in Jamaica was insufficient to satisfy the probable cause

standard because the warrant applied a lower standard."             This

argument implies that the agency's task in determining "probable

cause" -- which in turn is a benchmark for "serious reasons" under

§§ 1158(b)(2)(A)(iii)   and    1231(b)(3)(B)(iii)    --   is   simply   to

incorporate      a   foreign     jurisdiction's       standard-of-proof

nomenclature.    Section 1158(b)(2)(A), however, specifies that the

"Attorney General" is responsible for determining whether "there

are serious reasons for believing that the alien has committed a

serious nonpolitical crime outside the United States prior to the

arrival of the alien in the United States."         The serious-reasons

determination is thus the agency's alone to make.10       The label that

a foreign jurisdiction applies to the standard for issuing a

warrant does not replace this determination.      The agency's role is

to independently assess the significance of a foreign warrant's

issuance.     And in doing so, the agency may also consider other

information related to the suspected crime. See French v. Merrill,

 (1st Cir. 2021) ("Probable cause is based on the

totality of the facts and circumstances . . . .").




     10 The Attorney General delegates this power to the agency
pursuant to 

(g) and 8 C.F.R. pt. 1003; accordingly,
§ 1158(b)(2)(A)'s usages of the term "the Attorney General" refer
to the agency.


                                  -18-
          Morgan lastly argues that "[e]ven if this Court finds

that the arrest warrants and attached police affidavit constitute

probable cause, the Court should find that the BIA and the IJ

failed to meaningfully consider Petitioner's evidence establishing

his innocence in applying the burden-shifting framework."      Not so:

As the   government points out, Morgan failed to exhaust this

argument -- or any analog thereof -- in his counseled presentation

before the BIA.    Thus, although it is true that an evidentiary

indication that the serious-nonpolitical-crime bar "may apply"

places the burden on Morgan to prove by a preponderance of the

evidence that the serious-nonpolitical-crime bar does not apply,

see 

(d), Morgan cannot prevail on the basis of

any error he asserts along these lines.

          This    exhaustion   requirement    reflects   a   statutory

constraint on our consideration of Morgan's petition for review of

the agency's final order of removal.         See 

(b).

Under § 1252(d) of this judicial review provision, we "may review

a final order of removal only if . . . the alien has exhausted all

administrative remedies available to the alien as of right." While

this is not a jurisdictional limit, see Santos-Zacaria v. Garland,

, 419 (2023), the provision means that "theories not

advanced before the BIA may not be surfaced for the first time in

a petition for judicial review of the BIA's final order."     Makhoul

v. Ashcroft, 

 (1st Cir. 2004).     And while in other


                                -19-
statutory       contexts    we    might    have    more    discretion      to   waive

exhaustion, our discretion is limited here.                      Cf. McCarthy v.

Madigan, 

 (1992) ("Where Congress specifically

mandates, exhaustion is required.                 But where Congress has not

clearly required exhaustion, sound judicial discretion governs."

(citations omitted)), superseded by statute on other grounds.

Congress has specifically mandated exhaustion here, even if this

specific    mandate        does   not     take    the     form   of   an   absolute

jurisdictional bar.

                                  B. CAT Deferral

            We next turn to the agency's determination that Morgan

is ineligible for CAT Deferral.              Morgan's petition presents four

alternative arguments that the BIA and the IJ improperly declined

to   find   a    more-than-fifty-percent          likelihood     of   torture    upon

removal.    He argues that (i) the IJ and BIA applied an improperly

narrow definition of torture in discounting evidence of Morgan's

past treatment at the hands of the Jamaican police, that (ii) the

BIA failed to address Morgan's claim that he suffered past torture

by the Gang with the acquiescence of Jamaican law enforcement,

that (iii) the BIA improperly rejected Morgan's claim that the

Gang would torture him in the future with the acquiescence of

Jamaican law enforcement, and did so based on an overly broad

reading of the IJ's findings, and that (iv) the IJ and BIA




                                          -20-
improperly rejected Morgan's assertion that he would likely be

tortured by Jamaican officials upon his removal to Jamaica.

           The first of these arguments is unexhausted, and the

last of them is unpersuasive.     But the second argument, which goes

to the definition of acquiescence that the IJ and BIA applied, has

merit.   We remand to the BIA for further proceedings on its basis,

and do not reach Morgan's third argument.

           Before addressing the specifics of Morgan's CAT-related

arguments, we summarize the relevant legal background.

           If   the   serious-nonpolitical-crime       bar    applies,   then

Morgan's only remaining remedy is deferral (as distinct from

withholding) of removal under the CAT.           See 

(a).

The CAT Deferral regulation provides that "[a]n alien who: has

been     ordered      removed;    has       been      found     under     [8

C.F.R.] § 208.16(c)(3) to be entitled to protection under the

Convention Against Torture; and is subject to the provisions for

mandatory denial of withholding of removal under § 208.16(d)(2) or

(d)(3), shall be granted deferral of removal to the country where

he or she is more likely than not to be tortured."            Id.   But "[t]o

be granted deferral of removal under the CAT, the burden is on the

petitioner” to make this showing.        Ramírez-Pérez v. Barr, 

 (1st Cir. 2019).

           To   carry   this   burden,    "[a]    petitioner   seeking   CAT

protection must show it is more likely than not that he would be


                                  -21-
subject to torture by or with the acquiescence of a government

official."        Aldana-Ramos v. Holder, 

 (1st Cir. 2014)

(internal quotation marks and citation omitted); see also 

(a)(1) (restricting the definition of torture under the

CAT   to    where     "pain    or    suffering    is   inflicted    by   or   at   the

instigation of or with the consent or acquiescence of a public

official acting in an official capacity or other person acting in

an official capacity").              "Acquiescence of a public official," in

turn, "requires that the public official, prior to the activity

constituting         torture,       have   awareness    of   such    activity      and

thereafter breach his or her legal responsibility to intervene to

prevent such activity."             

(a)(7).        The regulation

lists      the     following    examples     of   "evidence    relevant       to   the

possibility of future torture":

                 (i) Evidence of past torture inflicted upon the
                 applicant;
                 (ii) Evidence that the applicant could relocate to
                 a part of the country of removal where he or she is
                 not likely to be tortured;
                 (iii) Evidence of gross, flagrant or mass
                 violations of human rights within the country of
                 removal, where applicable; and
                 (iv)   Other    relevant   information    regarding
                 conditions in the country of removal.

 § 208.16(c)(3).            Finally, "[a]lthough past torture does not

create a presumption of future torture, it is relevant to the

question of whether the petitioner is more likely than not to face

future torture."         Hernandez-Martinez v. Garland, 

, 40



                                           -22-
(1st Cir. 2023) (first citing 

(c)(3); and then

citing Romilus v. Ashcroft, 

 (1st Cir. 2004)).

            With this background in place, we proceed to address

Morgan's arguments that the agency erred in determining that he

was ineligible for CAT Deferral.

 1. Morgan Failed to Exhaust His Argument Regarding His Claim of
         Torture by the Jamaican Police Before the BIA.

            In his opening brief, Morgan states that the IJ and the

BIA "misapplied the standard of CAT protection" by failing to

properly    apply   the    regulatory     definition    of    torture,   which

includes "any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether

physical or mental," 

(a)(1), in determining that

Morgan's January 1, 2021 encounter with the Jamaican police did

not constitute torture.          He challenges the IJ's conclusion that

Morgan's description of the encounter was "insufficient for the

Court to find that the respondent was in the past tortured by any

government actor or any person acting under the color of law as

the experience did not amount to an extreme form of cruel and

degrading treatment rising to the level of torture," and also the

BIA's   "agree[ment]      with   the    [IJ]   that   the    one   beating   the

respondent sustained by the police did not rise to the level of

torture."

            As the government points out, Morgan did not raise this

particular challenge to the IJ's determination in his brief before



                                       -23-
the BIA.   In that brief, Morgan cited 

(a)(1) as

well as caselaw establishing that the infliction of mental pain or

fear of imminent death may qualify as torture under the CAT.    See

Romilus, 

.     But he invoked these authorities in

support of a claim that he suffered torture at the hands of the

Gang -- and not, as now presented in his petition brief, in support

of a claim that he suffered torture directly at the hands of the

Jamaican police in a specific roadside encounter on January 1,

2021.

           Morgan listed several instances of torture by the Gang

-- and of acquiescence thereto by the Jamaican police -- in his

BIA brief.   He stated that the IJ erred in failing to consider

evidence that he "was robbed several times at gunpoint in front

his children, and family, and made several police report to which

the police never responded," and that he "was further physically

attacked and beaten by two members of the gang because he brought

his gay brother in the community."    Morgan also asserted that the

IJ erroneously "analyzed the encounter with the police officers

only, and not the future torture nor the acquiescence of the

Jamaican Government"; that "the IJ did not refer to the record

evidence that supportably shows that [Morgan] and his family were

issued death threats by the gang and its affiliates"; and that

"the IJ failed to assess at least in an express way -- whether the

Bushead gang's death threats were threats of imminent death." None


                               -24-
of   these   statements,   however,   pertain   to   Morgan's   asserted

encounter with the Jamaican police.

             Morgan did make a passing assertion in his BIA brief

that "[t]he police officers threatened to kill [Morgan] if he did

not keep paying the Bushead gang," and also quoted at length from

his testimony regarding his encounter with the police. But neither

of these references appeared in the context of Morgan's developed

argument -- beginning on page 16 of his BIA brief -- that the IJ

erred in applying an overly narrow definition of torture.        Indeed,

by stating that "[t]he IJ only considered the single incident

between [Morgan] and the police to deny the CAT relief although

the record was not depleted of numerous death threats proffered by

the gang members," Morgan appeared to train his BIA argument

specifically on the IJ's improper classification of threats made

by the Gang.

             Because Morgan did not tie his definition-of-torture

argument to his claim of past torture by the Jamaican police in

his counseled brief before the BIA, the argument (as Morgan now

synthesizes it) is unexhausted.       See 

(d)(1); Chun

Mendez v. Garland, 

 (1st Cir. 2024) ("Importantly,

'theories not advanced before the BIA may not be surfaced for the

first time in a petition for judicial review of the BIA's final

order.'" (quoting Makhoul, 

)).




                                 -25-
            The BIA had no occasion to consider whether the IJ

applied an overly narrow definition of torture to the specific

facts of the police encounter -- an encounter that, as Morgan

described it at the removal hearing, involved different mental and

physical harms from those allegedly inflicted by the Gang.            We

accordingly do not disturb the BIA's determination that Morgan did

not carry his burden to establish eligibility for CAT Deferral

based on that encounter, even though the BIA did not address the

statement of law that Morgan now attributes to the IJ in his

petition.

   2. The IJ and the BIA Applied an Impermissibly Narrow Legal
    Standard to Morgan's Claim of Police Acquiescence to Past
                       Torture by the Gang.

            Morgan   next   raises   a   pair   of   related   arguments

challenging the IJ and BIA's treatment of his assertion that

Jamaican law enforcement acquiesced to torture that he endured at

the hands of the Gang.       He first argues that "[t]he BIA did not

address Petitioner's claim that he suffered past torture by the

Bus Head Gang members at the acquiescence of Jamaican officials."

He then argues that the IJ applied an improperly narrow definition

of acquiescence to torture under the CAT, and that the BIA erred

by not addressing the IJ's legal error.

            Read together,    the opinions of the IJ and the BIA

contradict the first of Morgan's arguments.          The BIA explained

that the IJ "permissibly concluded that [Morgan] and his family


                                  -26-
members' testimony about police acquiescence was not supported by

objective evidence and therefore was insufficient to demonstrate

that   the    respondent    will   be    tortured   with   the    consent    or

acquiescence of a public official in Jamaica."                The IJ, for her

part, stated as follows:

             To the extent the respondent is claiming any
             torture being committed by the Bus Head Gang, being
             acquiesced to by the police, the Court does not
             credit the respondent's claim that the police are
             being in fact acquiescent, nor does the Court find
             in the alternative that mere inaction on the part
             of the police amounts to acquiescence. As stated
             in the previous section, the Court does not find
             that the respondent, nor his family members, have
             objectively reliable and legitimate or reliable
             information sources of the police operation so as
             to establish that they are acquiescing to the Bus
             Head Gang's criminal activities in extorting and
             physically harming the respondent or his family
             members. Therefore, the Court is not able to find
             that any criminal activities that could amount to
             torture on the respondent are being acquiesced to
             by any government actor.

To summarize, the IJ squarely addressed Morgan's claim of past

acquiescence to torture when she found the evidence for that

acquiescence    to   be    unreliable.     The   BIA   then    affirmed     this

underlying credibility finding and concluded that Morgan did not

meet his burden to establish eligibility for CAT Deferral.

             The second of these arguments, however, has merit: the

BIA was silent as to the legal question of the definition of

acquiescence, and thus implicitly affirmed the IJ's application of

an incorrect definition.



                                    -27-
            The   IJ    assumed   that     acquiescence   requires   active

cooperation between the police and the direct perpetrators of

putative torture.       She discounted the notion "that mere inaction

on the part of the police amounts to acquiescence," and elsewhere

contrasted "the police's relationship with the Bus Head Gangs

[sic]" with "the police's lack of action or lack of protection in

response to their reporting of the criminal offenses perpetrated

by the Bus Head Gang" -- only the former of which, the IJ implied,

would support a finding of acquiescence.

            Reviewing this implicit legal conclusion de novo, see

Varela-Chavarria, 

, we conclude that a finding of

acquiescence does not require so much.             "[A]cquiescence occurs

when (1) officials are aware of torture and (2) thereafter breach

their legal duty to prevent such activity."            Murillo Morocho v.

Garland, 

 (1st Cir. 2023) (cleaned up); see also

Khalil v. Garland, 

 (1st Cir. 2024); 

(a)(7).        Under this definition, an act is cognizable as

torture under the CAT even where the official directly responsible

for it does not actively cooperate with the law enforcement

personnel charged with preventing torture.           See Murillo Morocho,

 (remanding partly because "agency's approach

overlooks   the   possibility     that     other   lower-level   government

officials . . . still may be acquiescing"); H.H. v. Garland, 

 (1st Cir. 2022) (expressing "skepticism that any record


                                    -28-
evidence of efforts taken by the foreign government to prevent

torture, no matter how minimal, will necessarily be sufficient to

preclude the agency from finding that a breach of the duty to

intervene is likely to occur").

            The government, citing DeCarvalho v. Garland, 

 (1st Cir. 2021), contends that "the mere inaction on the part

of the police in responding to the Bus Head Gang's extortion and

intimidation does not amount to the government's acquiescence to

torture."   It is true in a general sense that "concerns about how

the . . . police will prioritize [a petitioner's] protection and

the overall effectiveness of its law enforcement efforts do not

compel the conclusion" of the police's acquiescence "to violent

acts by [a] criminal organization."      DeCarvalho, 

(emphasis    added).      This    is    because    law   enforcement's

prioritization of matters as a response to resource constraints

does not necessarily indicate both "aware[ness] of torture" and

"breach [of a] legal duty to prevent such activity."           Murillo

Morocho, 

 (internal quotation marks and citation

omitted).

            But Morgan's assertions to the IJ in this case went

beyond the concerns at issue in DeCarvalho.       Morgan asserted more

than just a pragmatic decision by Jamaican law enforcement to

respond to matters other than his.      He stated, for example, that

"[t]he police would always refuse to take statements from anybody


                                 -29-
or arrest any[] of the [G]ang members."    He also stated that police

officers did not   investigate the assault against him at the

supermarket despite stating that they would do so.        And because

the agency did not perform any analysis whatsoever on whether these

assertions   of   police   behavior   in    this   case   constituted

"acquiescence" in the sense relevant to CAT Deferral, we cannot

sustain its resulting conclusion of overall non-acquiescence.11




     11 We note that Morgan did not point out the legal error he
asserts in his petition in his counseled brief before the BIA.
His discussion of police acquiescence in that brief challenged
only the IJ's underlying credibility determination. Ordinarily,
where, as here, Congress "uses mandatory language in an
administrative exhaustion provision, a court may not excuse a
failure to exhaust." United States v. Palomar-Santiago, 

 (2021) (internal quotation marks and citation omitted).
But here, the government does not raise non-exhaustion as a
specific ground for rejecting Morgan's present contention on the
definition of acquiescence.     The government's brief makes the
general point that "[a]s an initial matter, many factual and legal
challenges raised in the opening brief were not specifically raised
before the Board and have dramatically shifted from the Board brief
to now." And the government elsewhere raises non-exhaustion in
response to other arguments that Morgan presently advances -- but
not to this one. More specificity is generally required: "It is
an established appellate rule that issues adverted to in a
perfunctory manner, unaccompanied by some effort at developed
argumentation, are deemed waived . . . ." King v. Town of Hanover,

 (1st Cir. 1997) (internal quotation marks and
citations omitted).

     We thus decline to apply the exhaustion requirement here.
This is because of the nature of the government's waiver: The
government has not asked us to require exhaustion on the specific
point of the definition of acquiescence, despite having lodged
exactly such a request with respect to other arguments that Morgan
did not raise before the BIA.


                               -30-
            We accordingly remand to the BIA to reconsider its

determination of Morgan's eligibility for CAT Deferral -- that is,

of whether Morgan "is more likely than not to be tortured" upon

removal -- in light of the correct standard for acquiescence.

(a).       As part of this reconsideration, the BIA

may remand to the IJ for further factfinding as to the police's

inaction in response to Morgan's asserted claims of mistreatment

by the Gang.      Cf. Adeyanju v. Garland, 

, 48–49 (1st

Cir. 2022) ("Although it is true that the BIA must remand in those

instances where further factfinding on an issue may be required to

reach a resolution of the merits, the BIA has the authority to

review the undisputed facts in the entire record and, if it finds

those facts sufficient to adjudicate the appeal, it may give

discretionary weight to those facts and resolve the case . . . ."

(citations omitted)).

            We   next   turn   to    the     agency's    underlying        adverse

credibility determination as to the testimony offered by Morgan

and his supporting witnesses. This determination was also premised

on   an   erroneously    narrow     view     of   the   legal    standard     for

acquiescence as a basis for relief under the CAT, and may likewise

require reconsideration on remand.

            All of the IJ's credibility findings in the CAT Deferral

context were tailored to her erroneous view of acquiescence.                  She

stated    that   Morgan's   witnesses       did   not   know    of   the   gang's


                                     -31-
"cooperation and close working relationship with the local and

regional police"; that the witnesses lacked "any specific personal

knowledge of the police cooperation with the Bus Head Gang"); that

they lacked "personal knowledge of the police operation . . . or

their inability to act on various reports of crimes"); and that

they did not have "reliable information sources of the police

operation."     By contrast, the IJ found that the witnesses had

"personal experience with the police's lack of action."

            If the agency determines on remand that the police

inaction described by Morgan facially meets the legal standard for

acquiescence under the CAT, see 

(a)(7), it must

accordingly reconsider its determination that the IJ "permissibly

concluded that [Morgan] and his family members' testimony about

police acquiescence was not supported by objective evidence."

            We intimate no view as to the ultimate outcome of the

agency's    reconsideration   of   its    partial   adverse   credibility

determination.    We merely observe that the agency must premise its

credibility     determination      on     the   correct   standard   for

acquiescence. If on remand the agency again determines that Morgan

is ineligible for CAT Deferral, its determination must account for

all credible witness testimony that is relevant to this correct

standard.12


     12   Because we remand for the agency's reconsideration of its



                                   -32-
    3. The BIA and IJ Properly Declined to Grant Morgan's CAT
 Deferral Application on Account of Jamaican Country Conditions.

           Morgan's final argument on the CAT Deferral issue is

that the IJ and the BIA improperly discounted record evidence of

country conditions in concluding that Morgan would not likely be

tortured upon his removal to Jamaica -- and if convicted of the

charged offenses, his presumable imprisonment there.                   See 

(c)(3)(iii),         (iv)    (requiring    the     agency    to   consider

"[e]vidence of gross, flagrant or mass violations of human rights

within the country of removal" and "[o]ther relevant information

regarding conditions in the country of removal").                   Morgan cites a

2022 U.S. Department of State Human Rights Report, as well as his

own removal-hearing testimony that the Gang operates in Jamaican

correctional facilities.              He argues that we "should vacate the

BIA's   conclusion       [regarding]       Petitioner's        evidence     on     the

likelihood of torture by Jamaican officials."

           Morgan does not specify any legal ground on which the

BIA's determination should be vacated.               (He later states that the

IJ's    finding   as      to     country        conditions     is     "incorrect").

Nevertheless,     even    assuming        that    incorrectness       alone      would

necessitate remand, Morgan has not made a showing of incorrectness.




determination on past acquiescence, we do not reach Morgan's
separate argument that the agency improperly conflated its
inquiries into (1) acquiescence to past torture and (2)
acquiescence to future torture.


                                         -33-
His brief does not engage with the IJ's explanation that "to the

extent that the Country Report documents mistreatments or poor

prison conditions in Jamaica, they do not rise to torture in this

case,   as     unless   those   conditions       are   maintained   and    created

specifically for the commission of torture, they are not sufficient

to support the respondent's eligibility for protection under the

Convention against Torture."                 This explanation passes muster:

"general evidence about country conditions," we have explained,

"cannot compensate for the lack of specific evidence showing a

particularized risk of torture."               Bazile v. Garland, 

,

16 (1st Cir. 2023) (first citing Alvizures-Gomes v. Lynch, 

 (1st Cir. 2016); and then citing Mendez-Barrera v.

Holder, 

 (1st Cir. 2010)).                  And "any reasonable

adjudicator," with respect to the agency's application of that

principle      here,    would   not    "be    compelled    to   conclude   to    the

contrary."       Barnica-Lopez, 

 (internal quotation

marks and citation omitted); see also Samayoa Cabrera v. Barr, 

    (1st   Cir.    2019)    ("Samayoa   would    have   had   to

demonstrate to the BIA that the IJ had erred in rejecting his

contention that he was particularly likely to be tortured because

he would be targeted for harsher treatment than other prisoners in

consequence of who he was.").




                                        -34-
                               IV.

          For the foregoing reasons, we deny the petition for

review insofar as it challenges the agency's determination of

Morgan's ineligibility for asylum, Statutory Withholding, and CAT

Withholding.   We grant the petition for review insofar as it

challenges the agency's determination of Morgan's ineligibility

for CAT Deferral, vacate that determination, and remand to the BIA

for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.




                              -35-