U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit, 2001

United States v. Levy

United States v. Levy
U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit · Decided May 22, 2001

United States v. Levy

Opinion

5(&200(1'(' )25 )8//7(;7 38%/,&$7,21  8QLWHG6WDWHVY/HY\ 1R 3XUVXDQW WR 6L[WK &LUFXLW 5XOH  (/(&7521,& &,7$7,21  )(' $SS 3 WK &LU WKH VHQWHQFH DERYH WKH JXLGHOLQH UDQJH WR UHIOHFW WKH )LOH 1DPH DS QDWXUH RI WKH FRQGXFW ([DPSOHV RI H[WUHPH FRQGXFW LQFOXGHWRUWXUHRIDYLFWLPJUDWXLWRXVLQIOLFWLRQRILQMXU\ RUSURORQJLQJRISDLQRUKXPLOLDWLRQ 81,7('67$7(6&28572)$33($/6 :KLOH †. IRFXVHV VROHO\ RQ WKH H[WHQW RI WKH SK\VLFDO )257+(6,;7+&,5&8,7 LQMXU\†.IRFXVHVRQWKHGHSUDYLW\RIWKH GHIHQGDQWjV BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB FRQGXFW DQG ERWK WKH SK\VLFDO DQG PHQWDO DVSHFWV RI WKH HIIHFW WKDW WKH FRQGXFW KDG RQ WKH YLFWLP  )RU H[DPSOH D YLFWLPFRXOGKDYHH[WHQVLYHSK\VLFDOLQMXULHVDVDUHVXOWRI 81,7(' 67$7(6 2) $0(5,&$ ; QHJOLJHQWFRQGXFWWKDWFRXOGQRWIDOOZLWKLQ†.RUYLFH 3ODLQWLII$SSHOOHH  YHUVDnH[WUHPHFRQGXFWFRXOGOHDGWRSURORQJHGKXPLOLDWLRQ  EXWQRWH[WHQVLYHSK\VLFDOLQMXULHV  1R Y  /HY\ DUJXHV WKDW WKH JRYHUQPHQWjV UHOLDQFH RQ 8QLWHG !  6WDWHVY:ULJKW )G  WK&LU  LVPLVSODFHG s(50$,1( / /(9<  EHFDXVHWKHGHSDUWXUHDWLVVXHLQ:ULJKWZDVEDVHGXSRQDQ 'HIHQGDQW$SSHOODQW  DOWHUQDWHDSSOLFDWLRQRI††.DQG./HY\LVFRUUHFW 1 LQKLVDVVHUWLRQDERXWWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIWKHVHSURYLVLRQVLQWKH :ULJKWFDVH KRZHYHULQXSKROGLQJWKHVHQWHQFHWKH:ULJKW $SSHDOIURPWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV'LVWULFW&RXUW FRXUWVWDWHGm>W@KHWH[WRIWKHVHVHFWLRQV>.DQG.@ IRUWKH1RUWKHUQ'LVWULFWRI2KLRDW$NURQ H[SOLFLWO\FRYHUV:ULJKWjVFRQGXFWDQGGHSDUWLQJXSZDUGRQ 1R  n'DYLG''RZGsU'LVWULFWsXGJH WKHEDVLVRIDQ\RUDOORIWKHSURYLVLRQVZDVFRUUHFWl,GDW   HPSKDVLVDGGHG ,QDVPXFKDV/HY\DUJXHVWKDWWKHVH 6XEPLWWHG $SULO SURYLVLRQV RYHUODS DQG WKXV GRXEOH FRXQW KLV DUJXPHQW LV ZLWKRXWPHULW 'HFLGHGDQG)LOHG 0D\ $)),50(' %HIRUH 6,/(5DQG0225(&LUFXLWsXGJHV 67$** 'LVWULFWsXGJH BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB &2816(/ 21 %5,()   /DZUHQFH s :KLWQH\ 6U %85'21 0(5/,77,$NURQ2KLRIRU$SSHOODQW%ODV(6HUUDQR

7KH +RQRUDEOH 7RP 6WDJJ 8QLWHG 6WDWHV 'LVWULFW sXGJH IRU WKH :HVWHUQ 'LVWULFW RI /RXLVLDQD VLWWLQJ E\ GHVLJQDWLRQ

  8QLWHG6WDWHVY/HY\ 1R 1R 8QLWHG6WDWHVY/HY\  $66,67$1781,7('67$7(6$77251(<&OHYHODQG ODQJXDJHRI$SSOLFDWLRQ1RWHPDNHVLWFOHDUWKDWDGHSDUWXUH 2KLRIRU$SSHOOHH RQDFFRXQWRIERGLO\LQMXU\LVDUHVXOWWKDWZDVLQWHQGHGE\WKH 6HQWHQFLQJ &RPPLVVLRQ  ,Q FDVHV LQ ZKLFK D †. BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB GHSDUWXUHLVPDGHWKHHLJKWOHYHOLQFUHDVHXQGHU†s E  IRUSK\VLFDOLQMXU\ZRXOGEHDSSURSULDWH 23,1,21 BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB 0RUHRYHU GHSDUWXUH XQGHU †. GRHV QRW UHVXOW IURP mSUHFLVHO\WKHVDPHDVSHFWRIDGHIHQGDQWjVFRQGXFWlWKDWLV 6,/(5&LUFXLWsXGJH'HIHQGDQWsHUPDLQH//HY\DSSHDOV FRQVLGHUHG XQGHU †s E    )DUURZ   )G DW   WKH VHQWHQFH HQWHUHG RQ KLV JXLOW\ SOHD WR VROLFLWDWLRQ WR 866*†.SURYLGHV FRPPLWDFULPHRIYLROHQFHLQYLRODWLRQRI86&† UHWDOLDWLQJDJDLQVWDZLWQHVV5D\FLQH6PLWKLQYLRODWLRQRI ,I VLJQLILFDQW SK\VLFDO LQMXU\ UHVXOWHG WKH FRXUW PD\ 86&†DQGEHLQJDQDFFHVVRU\DIWHUWKHIDFWXQGHU LQFUHDVH WKH VHQWHQFH DERYH WKH DXWKRUL]HG JXLGHOLQH 86&†7KHGLVWULFWFRXUWLQFUHDVHGWKHVHQWHQFHE\HLJKW UDQJH 7KH H[WHQW RI WKH LQFUHDVH RUGLQDULO\ VKRXOG OHYHOVXQGHU866*†s E  EHFDXVHWKHRIIHQVHFDXVHG GHSHQGRQWKHH[WHQWRIWKHLQMXU\WKHGHJUHHWRZKLFKLW SK\VLFDO LQMXU\ WR 6PLWK  ,W DOVR GHSDUWHG XSZDUG XQGHU PD\SURYHSHUPDQHQWDQGWKHH[WHQWWRZKLFKWKHLQMXU\ †. EHFDXVH RI WKH H[WHQW RI KHU LQMXULHV DQG †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†. 'LVWULFW RI 2KLR DQG ZDV VHQWHQFHG WR D WHQ\HDU WHUP RI LPSULVRQPHQW6PLWKZDVVXESRHQDHGWRWHVWLI\DJDLQVW/HY\ 866* †s E   ZDV DSSOLHG LQ WKLV FDVH EHFDXVH WKH EHIRUH D IHGHUDO JUDQG MXU\ DQG DGYLVHG /HY\ RI KHU RIIHQVHFDXVHGSK\VLFDOLQMXU\EXW†.GLUHFWVWKHGLVWULFW FRRSHUDWLRQZLWKWKHJRYHUQPHQW FRXUW WR FRQVLGHU  mWKH H[WHQW RI WKH LQMXU\l  $Q LQFUHDVH XQGHU†s E  LVQRWWULJJHUHGE\mVHULRXVlSK\VLFDORU $IWHU/HY\jVFRQYLFWLRQEXWSULRUWRKLVUHSRUWLQJWRSULVRQ ERGLO\LQMXU\DVLVWKHFDVHLQRWKHUJXLGHOLQHV7KHGLVWULFW 0DULR//HY\sHUPDLQH/HY\jVFRXVLQWKUHZVXOIXULFDFLG FRXUWjV H[DPLQDWLRQ RI ZKHWKHU FRQGXFW FDXVHG SK\VLFDO DW6PLWK$VDUHVXOWRIWKHDWWDFN6PLWKORVWKHUULJKWH\H LQMXU\LVVHSDUDWHIURPLWVH[DPLQDWLRQRIWKHH[WHQWRIWKH DQGVXIIHUHGVHYHUHDFLGEXUQVWRKHUIDFHFKHVWDUPVDQG SK\VLFDOLQMXU\DQGWKXVVXFKDQDQDO\VLVFRQVLGHUVGLIIHUHQW OHJVsHUPDLQH/HY\KDGSODQQHGWKHDWWDFNRQ6PLWKZLWK DVSHFWVmRIDGHIHQGDQWjVFRQGXFWl RWKHUVQRWSDUWLHVWRWKLVDSSHDOWRUHWDOLDWHDJDLQVWKHUIRU FRRSHUDWLQJZLWKWKHJRYHUQPHQW/HY\HQWHUHGDJXLOW\SOHD /LNHZLVHWKHGLVWULFWFRXUWjVGHSDUWXUHXQGHU†.ZDV WRWKHFKDUJHVRQWKHGD\RIWULDO EDVHGRQ\HWDQRWKHUDVSHFWRIWKHUHOHYDQWFRQGXFWLQWKLV FDVH866*†.SURYLGHV %HIRUH VHQWHQFLQJ WKH GLVWULFW FRXUW HQWHUHG DQ RUGHU SURYLGLQJQRWLFHWKDWLWLQWHQGHGWRGHSDUWVXDVSRQWHIURPWKH ,IWKHGHIHQGDQW VFRQGXFWZDVXQXVXDOO\KHLQRXVFUXHO DSSOLFDEOHVHQWHQFLQJUDQJHXQGHU866*††.. EUXWDORUGHJUDGLQJWRWKHYLFWLPWKHFRXUWPD\LQFUHDVH  8QLWHG6WDWHVY/HY\ 1R 1R 8QLWHG6WDWHVY/HY\  JUDSKLFDOO\GHWDLOHGWKHKHLQRXVQDWXUHRIWKHFULPHDQGWKH $ G DQG$/HY\REMHFWHGWRDQXSZDUGGHSDUWXUH VHYHUH SK\VLFDO DQG SV\FKRORJLFDO LQMXULHV WKDW 6PLWK $IWHU WKH VHQWHQFLQJ KHDULQJ WKH FRXUW UXOHG WKDW LW ZRXOG VXIIHUHG/HY\GLGQRWFURVVH[DPLQH6PLWKjVVLVWHUDQGGRHV GHSDUWXSZDUGXQGHU††.DQG.$FFRUGLQJO\/HY\ QRWFRQWHQGWKDWKHUWHVWLPRQ\ZDVLQDFFXUDWH UHFHLYHGDVHQWHQFHRIPRQWKVWRUXQFRQVHFXWLYHO\WRWKH nPRQWK VHQWHQFH IRU KLV GUXJ DQG WD[ HYDVLRQ /HY\DOVRFRQWHQGVWKDWXSZDUGGHSDUWXUHXQGHU††. FRQYLFWLRQV DQG . DPRXQWHG WR GRXEOH FRXQWLQJ EHFDXVH WKRVH SURYLVLRQVSXQLVKFRQGXFWWDNHQLQWRDFFRXQWLQ†s E   ,,',6&866,21 $OWKRXJKXQFOHDULWDSSHDUVWKDWKHDOVRDUJXHVWKDWGRXEOH $6WDQGDUGRI5HYLHZ FRXQWLQJRFFXUUHGEHFDXVH††.DQG.RYHUODSHDFK RWKHULQWKHVDPHPDQQHU m7KLVFRXUWUHYLHZVWKHGLVWULFWFRXUW VILQGLQJVRIIDFWIRU FOHDUHUURUDQGJLYHVGHQRYRFRQVLGHUDWLRQWRWKHDSSOLFDWLRQ :HVDLGLQ)DUURZ  RIWKHJXLGHOLQHVWRWKHIDFWVl8QLWHG6WDWHVY'H6DQWLV )G WK&LU  FLWLQJ8QLWHG6WDWHVYsDUPDQ ,PSHUPLVVLEOHµGRXEOHFRXQWLQJjRFFXUVZKHQSUHFLVHO\ )G   WK&LU  :HUHYLHZmWKHSURSULHW\ WKHVDPHDVSHFWRIDGHIHQGDQWjVFRQGXFWIDFWRUVLQWRKLV RI D GHSDUWXUH IURP WKH VHQWHQFLQJ JXLGHOLQHV IRU DEXVH RI VHQWHQFHLQWZRVHSDUDWHZD\V GLVFUHWLRQl8QLWHG6WDWHVY:ULJKW )G   WK    &LU   FLWLQJ8QLWHG6WDWHVY9DOHQWLQH)G  >:@H DOORZ GRXEOH FRXQWLQJ ZKHUH LW DSSHDUV WKDW  WK&LU  $QHUURURIODZLQWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRU &RQJUHVV RU WKH 6HQWHQFLQJ &RPPLVVLRQ LQWHQGHG WR LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RI WKH *XLGHOLQHV FRQVWLWXWHV DQ DEXVH RI DWWDFK PXOWLSOH SHQDOWLHV WR WKH VDPH FRQGXFW 7KHVH GLVFUHWLRQ  6HH 9DOHQWLQH  )G DW WK &LU  mH[FHSWLRQVlWRRXUUXOHDJDLQVWGRXEOHFRXQWLQJLIWKH\ FLWLQJ.RRQY8QLWHG6WDWHV86    m7KH FDQEHFKDUDFWHUL]HGDVVXFKGHULYHIURPWKHSULQFLSOH DEXVHnRInGLVFUHWLRQVWDQGDUGLQFOXGHVUHYLHZWRGHWHUPLQH WKDWWKH6HQWHQFLQJ*XLGHOLQHVmVKRXOGEHLQWHUSUHWHGDV WKDW WKH GLVFUHWLRQ ZDV QRW JXLGHG E\ HUURQHRXV OHJDO LI WKH\ ZHUH D VWDWXWHl ZKLFK LQ WXUQ GLFWDWHV WKDW ZH FRQFOXVLRQVl 7KHm$FWDXWKRUL]HVGLVWULFWFRXUWVWRGHSDUW mIROORZWKH>LU@FOHDUXQDPELJXRXVODQJXDJHLIWKHUHLVQR LQFDVHVWKDWIHDWXUHDJJUDYDWLQJRUPLWLJDWLQJFLUFXPVWDQFHV PDQLIHVWDWLRQRIDFRQWUDU\LQWHQWl RIDNLQGRUGHJUHHQRWDGHTXDWHO\WDNHQLQWRFRQVLGHUDWLRQE\ WKH&RPPLVVLRQl.RRQ86DW  )DUURZ   )G DW     TXRWLQJ 8QLWHG 6WDWHV Y +D\WHU2LO&R)G WK&LU   TXRWLQJ %'RXEOH&RXQWLQJ 8QLWHG6WDWHVY/HZLV )G WK&LU  FLWDWLRQ RPLWWHG   :KLOH WKH )DUURZ FRXUW ZDV QRW /HY\ DUJXHV WKDW WKH HLJKWnOHYHO LQFUHDVH XQGHU FRQVLGHULQJWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIWKHVDPHJXLGHOLQHVDVLQYROYHG †s E  IRUWKHVSHFLILFRIIHQVHFKDUDFWHULVWLFRIFDXVLQJ LQ WKLV FDVH UHOLDQFH XSRQ WKH JHQHUDO SURSRVLWLRQ WKDW WKH SK\VLFDOLQMXU\FRQVWLWXWHGLPSURSHUGRXEOHFRXQWLQJDVLWZDV 6HQWHQFLQJ *XLGHOLQHV mEH LQWHUSUHWHG DV LI WKH\ ZHUH D WKHFRQGXFWIRUZKLFKKHZDVFRQYLFWHGDQGZDVFRQVLGHUHG VWDWXWHl GHIHDWV /HY\jV DUJXPHQW ZLWK UHJDUG WR XSZDUG LQIRUPXODWLQJKLVEDVHRIIHQVHOHYHOm,PSHUPLVVLEOHµGRXEOH GHSDUWXUHXQGHU††.DQG.$SSOLFDWLRQ1RWHWR FRXQWLQJj RFFXUV ZKHQ SUHFLVHO\ WKH VDPH DVSHFW RI D †sSURYLGHV m,IDZHDSRQZDVXVHGRUERGLO\LQMXU\RU GHIHQGDQWjVFRQGXFWIDFWRUVLQWRKLVVHQWHQFHLQWZRVHSDUDWH VLJQLILFDQW SURSHUW\ GDPDJH UHVXOWHG D GHSDUWXUH PD\ EH ZD\Vl8QLWHG6WDWHVY)DUURZ )G   WK&LU ZDUUDQWHG  6HH &KDSWHU )LYH 3DUW . 'HSDUWXUHV l  7KH  8QLWHG6WDWHVY/HY\ 1R 1R 8QLWHG6WDWHVY/HY\    FLWLQJ8QLWHG6WDWHVY3HUNLQV )G WK /HY\DOVRFRQWHQGVWKDWWKHGLVWULFWFRXUWIDLOHGWRPDNH &LU   DGHTXDWHIDFWXDOILQGLQJVWRVXSSRUWXSZDUGGHSDUWXUH7KLV DUJXPHQWLVZKROO\ZLWKRXWPHULW7KHGLVWULFWFRXUWSURYLGHG 866* †s D  SURYLGHV WKH EDVH RIIHQVH OHYHO IRU QRWLFHWKDWLWLQWHQGHGWRGHSDUWXQGHU††.DQG.$W REVWUXFWLRQ RI MXVWLFH  7KH FRPPHQWDU\ WR †s OLVWV  WKHVHQWHQFLQJKHDULQJWKHGLVWULFWFRXUWFLWHG8QLWHG6WDWHV 86&†DVRQHRIWKHVWDWXWRU\SURYLVLRQVWRZKLFKWKLV Y&URVV)G WK&LU  IRULWVKROGLQJWKDW JXLGHOLQH DSSOLHV  6HH DOVR 866* $SSHQGL[ $  7KH XSZDUGGHSDUWXUHVFRXOGEHDSSOLHGWRDQDLGHUDQGDEHWWRU EDFNJURXQG WR †s SURYLGHV m7KLV VHFWLRQ DGGUHVVHV ZKR RUGHUHG RU FDXVHG DQ DWWDFN  7KH GLVWULFW FRXUW WKHQ RIIHQVHV LQYROYLQJ WKH REVWUXFWLRQ RI MXVWLFH JHQHUDOO\ VWDWHG SURVHFXWHGXQGHUWKHDERYHnUHIHUHQFHGVWDWXWRU\SURYLVLRQV 1XPHURXV RIIHQVHV RI YDU\LQJ VHULRXVQHVV PD\ FRQVWLWXWH 7KH &RXUW PDNHV WKH ILQGLQJ WKDW HYHQ WKRXJK WKH REVWUXFWLRQRIMXVWLFHl86&† E SURYLGHV GHIHQGDQWZDVQRWWKHSHUVRQZKRWKUHZWKHDFLGRQWKH YLFWLP LQ WKH &RXUWjV PLQG LWjV FOHDU WKDW KH ZDV E  :KRHYHU NQRZLQJO\ HQJDJHV LQ DQ\ FRQGXFW DQG LQVWUXPHQWDOLQWKHRUFKHVWUDWLRQRIWKHRIIHQVH WKHUHE\ FDXVHV ERGLO\ LQMXU\ WR DQRWKHU SHUVRQ RU ,jYHJLYHQKLPWKHEHQHILWRIWKHGRXEWRQUROHLQWKH GDPDJHV WKH WDQJLEOH SURSHUW\ RI DQRWKHU SHUVRQ RU RIIHQVHLVVXHEXWKHLVQRWHQWLWOHGWREHQHILWRIWKHGRXEW WKUHDWHQV WR GR VR ZLWK LQWHQW WR UHWDOLDWH DJDLQVW DQ\ DV IDU DV WKH LQIOLFWLRQ RI WKLV KRUULEOH LQMXU\ XSRQ WKH SHUVRQIRUn YLFWLP   WKH DWWHQGDQFH RI D ZLWQHVV RU SDUW\ DW DQ RIILFLDO

 SURFHHGLQJ RU DQ\ WHVWLPRQ\ JLYHQ RU DQ\ UHFRUG ,WKLQNLWZDVHQWLUHO\IRUHVHHDEOHWKDWWKURZLQJDFLGRQ GRFXPHQWRURWKHUREMHFWSURGXFHGE\DZLWQHVVLQDQ DQRWKHUKXPDQEHLQJZRXOGUHVXOWLQFDWDVWURSKLFLQMXULHV RIILFLDOSURFHHGLQJ RU WKDWKDSSHQHGKHUH   DQ\ LQIRUPDWLRQ UHODWLQJ WR WKH FRPPLVVLRQ RU $QGVRWKH&RXUWjVJRLQJWRnLVJRLQJWRLQFUHDVHn SRVVLEOHFRPPLVVLRQRID)HGHUDORIIHQVHRUDYLRODWLRQ LV JRLQJ WR GHSDUW XSZDUG IRXU OHYHOV IRU WKH RIIHQVH RI FRQGLWLRQV RI SUREDWLRQ SDUROH RU UHOHDVH SHQGLQJ XQGHU.DQGWKH&RXUWDOVRILQGVWKDWWKHSURYLVLRQV MXGLFLDO SURFHHGLQJV JLYHQ E\ D SHUVRQ WR D ODZ RI.DSSO\EHFDXVHWKLVFRQGXFWZDVHYHQWKRXJK HQIRUFHPHQWRIILFHU  WKHGHIHQGDQWjVRQO\DQDLGHUDQGDEHWWRUZDVSUHGLFWDEOH RU DWWHPSWV WR GR VR VKDOO EH ILQHG XQGHU WKLV WLWOH RU DQGXQXVXDOO\KHLQRXVFUXHOGHELOLWDWLQJDQGGHJUDGLQJ LPSULVRQHGQRWPRUHWKDQWHQ\HDUVRUERWK WRWKHYLFWLP $QGVRWKH&RXUWZLOOGHSDUWXSZDUGIRXUOHYHOVRQWKH 7KHODQJXDJHRIWKLVVWDWXWHWKXVFULPLQDOL]HVUHWDOLDWLRQV RIIHQVHIRUnXQGHUWKHSURYLVLRQVRI. DJDLQVW ZLWQHVVHV WKDW LQYROYH DFWXDO RU WKUHDWHQHG ERGLO\ LQMXU\  $FFRUGLQJO\ WKH EDVH OHYHO DSSOLHV WR FRQYLFWLRQV 7KHSUHVHQWHQFHUHSRUWFRQWDLQHGDGHWDLOHGDFFRXQWRIWKH XQGHU † UHJDUGOHVV RI ZKHWKHU ERGLO\ LQMXU\ RFFXUUHG RIIHQVH FRQGXFW DQG WKH QDWXUH RI 6PLWKjV LQMXULHV  7KH +HQFHWKHHLJKWnOHYHOLQFUHDVHXQGHU†s E IRUVSHFLILF GLVWULFWFRXUWLVDOORZHGWRDFFHSWDVWUXHDOOIDFWXDODOOHJDWLRQV RIIHQVHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVGRHVQRWWDNHLQWRDFFRXQWFRQGXFWWKDW LQ D SUHVHQWHQFH UHSRUW WR ZKLFK WKH GHIHQGDQW GRHV QRW ZDV DOUHDG\ WDNHQ LQWR DFFRXQW LQ VHWWLQJ WKH EDVH RIIHQVH REMHFW8QLWHG6WDWHVY:DUG )G  WK&LU OHYHO7KXVGRXEOHFRXQWLQJGLGQRWRFFXU   IDLOXUH RI GHIHQGDQW WR REMHFW WR IDFWXDO ILQGLQJV RI SUHVHQWHQFH UHSRUW ZDLYHV DQ\ IXWXUH REMHFWLRQV   7KH WHVWLPRQ\RI6PLWKjVROGHUVLVWHUDWWKHVHQWHQFLQJKHDULQJ

Case-law data current through December 31, 2025. Source: CourtListener bulk data.