NOT RECOMMENDED FOR PUBLICATION
                                File Name: 25a0425n.06

                                           No. 23-5579

                          UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS                                 FILED
                               FOR THE SIXTH CIRCUIT                                   Sep 16, 2025
                                                                               KELLY L. STEPHENS, Clerk
                                                          )
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
                                                          )
        Plaintiff-Appellee,                               )      ON APPEAL FROM THE
                                                          )      UNITED STATES DISTRICT
 v.                                                       )      COURT FOR THE EASTERN
                                                          )      DISTRICT OF TENNESSEE
 CODY BALLINGER,                                          )
        Defendant-Appellant.                              )                             OPINION
                                                          )


Before: COLE, GIBBONS, and BUSH, Circuit Judges.

       BUSH, Circuit Judge. Defendant-Appellant Cody Ballinger pleaded guilty to a single

count of being a felon in possession of a firearm in violation of 

(g)(1). The district

court sentenced Ballinger to 180 months imprisonment based on an enhancement under the

mandatory minimum of the Armed Career Criminal Act (ACCA). Ballinger now appeals his

sentence. We AFFIRM.

                                                 I.

       Cody Ballinger cooperated when detectives arrived at his girlfriend’s home in July 2021.

After speaking with the detectives, Ballinger led them to the woods near the house. There they

found a black duffel bag with a pistol inside. On the pistol were Ballinger’s fingerprints. Given

his past felonies, the government planned to charge Ballinger as a felon in possession of a firearm

in violation of 

(g)(1).
No. 23-5579, United States v. Ballinger


       In February 2022, a federal grand jury indicted Ballinger of that single count. Close to a

year later, Ballinger pleaded guilty to the charged offense. During the change-of-plea hearing, the

Government informed Ballinger that he could face a higher sentence if he was found to be an

Armed Career Criminal at sentencing. Ballinger did not object and acknowledged the possible

consequences of his guilty plea.

       After the guilty plea, the probation office filed a Presentence Report and a Revised

Presentence Report (PSR). In the PSR, the probation office listed Ballinger’s twenty-two prior

felony convictions, eleven of which were for various forms of burglary. Each of Ballinger’s

burglaries took place in Bradley County, Tennessee, with nine separate victims noted. The dates

of these burglaries bear on this appeal, so we recount them in full:

           1.     Burglary—Other than Habitation: November 22, 2010, convicted on
                  February 28, 2011;
           2.     Burglary: January 4, 2016, convicted on November 14, 2018;
           3.     Aggravated Burglary: July 1, 2016, convicted on November 14, 2018;
           4.     Burglary: July 1, 2016, convicted on November 14, 2018;
           5.     Burglary: July 1, 2016, convicted on November 14, 2018;
           6.     Burglary: July 4, 2016, convicted on November 14, 2018;
           7.     Aggravated Burglary: July 6, 2016, convicted on November 14, 2018;
           8.     Aggravated Burglary: October 14, 2016, convicted on November 14,
                  2018;
           9.     Burglary: October 15, 2016, convicted on November 14, 2018;
           10.    Burglary: October 15, 2016, convicted on November 14, 2018;
           11.    Burglary: October 17, 2016, convicted on November 14, 2018.

       Ballinger objected to the PSR in May 2023, but he did not dispute or object to the

characterization of his criminal history. At sentencing, the district court found that the dates listed

in the PSR accurately reflect the facts of Ballinger’s convictions. Once again, Ballinger did not

object or point to any inaccuracy in the PSR’s recitation. Because this sentencing took place before

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No. 23-5579, United States v. Ballinger


the Supreme Court decided Erlinger v. United States, 

 (2024), the district court made

the determination from the PSR that Ballinger qualified as an Armed Career Criminal under the

ACCA and imposed a mandatory minimum sentence of 180-months’ imprisonment.

                                               II.

       The ACCA imposes an enhanced mandatory minimum sentence for felons found in

possession of a firearm who have “three previous convictions” for a “violent felony or a serious

drug offense, or both,” that were “committed on occasions different from one another[.]” 

(e)(1). The ACCA defines violent felonies as those crimes punishable by more than

one-year imprisonment and involve the use, attempted use, or threat to use “physical force against

the person of another; or . . . is burglary, arson, or extortion[.]” 

 § 924(e)(2)(B) (emphasis

added). Ballinger does not dispute that his previous burglary convictions constitute violent

felonies under the ACCA. He instead focuses on the different-occasions element of the ACCA

enhancement.

       In 2022, at the time of Ballinger’s sentencing, our precedent allowed district judges to

determine whether predicate offenses were committed on different occasions. See United States

v. Williams, 

 (6th Cir. 2022). Erlinger abrogated this rule. 

.

There, the Supreme Court held that the question of whether predicate violent felonies were

committed on different occasions “must be submitted to a jury and found unanimously and beyond

a reasonable doubt.” 

 at 833–34 (quotation omitted).

       In this appeal, Ballinger asserts two errors based on Erlinger. First, Ballinger claims that

applying the ACCA enhancement to his sentence amounts to structural error because the

government failed to charge the ACCA enhancement in the indictment and failed to obtain a

guilty plea where Ballinger knowingly “admits all the elements of the enhanced offense[.]”


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No. 23-5579, United States v. Ballinger


Appellant Br. 11. Second, Ballinger claims that even if harmless error review applies, the error

here was not harmless.

        We find neither argument persuasive.

                                                A.

        We have already decided that Erlinger errors are not structural. United States v. Campbell,

, 630–31 (6th Cir. 2024); see also United States v. Thomas, 

 (6th

Cir. 2025). Campbell considered whether the failure to submit the different-occasions question to

the jury amounted to a structural error—and concluded that it did not. 122 F.4th at 630–31.

Following Campbell, the Erlinger error here was not structural.

                                                B.

        Because Ballinger’s first claim of error fails, we turn to the second question: whether the

error was harmless. Errors are harmless only “if the court can conclude beyond a reasonable doubt

that the jury would have found the defendant’s offenses occurred on different occasions.” United

States v. Durham, —F.4th—, No. 23-5162/5173, 

, at *2 (6th Cir. Aug. 14, 2025)

(per curiam). Given Ballinger’s criminal history, we have no difficulty reaching that conclusion

here.

        Ballinger makes two arguments to support his cause: (1) the prior convictions could not

have been presented through admissible evidence because Erlinger prohibited the use of Shepard

documents to determine facts about prior offenses, and (2) some juries have acquitted defendants

of ACCA offenses by finding that a long lapse in time was a single occasion. We reject both

arguments.

        Ballinger claims that Erlinger “expressly recogniz[ed] that Shepard documents are

inherently unreliable” in this context. Appellant Br. 20. Once again, our precedent forecloses this


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No. 23-5579, United States v. Ballinger


argument. Shepard documents may still be relied on to conduct a harmless error review in the

different-occasions context. Thomas, 142 F.4th at 418–19. This includes information contained

in a PSR. 

. Erlinger only clarifies that courts should take caution with Shepard

documents if a court has reason to “question the reliability of the PSR’s findings.” 

 But absent

the defendant providing reason to doubt the information provided in the PSR, courts can still rely

on the PSR when conducting a harmless-error inquiry. Id.; see United States v. Geerken, 

 (6th Cir. 2007) (“When a defendant fails to produce any evidence to contradict the facts

set forth in the PSR, a district court is entitled to rely on those facts when sentencing the

defendant.”).

       Now we apply this to Ballinger. Ballinger has provided no reason to doubt the dates and

locations of his previous offenses laid out in the PSR. He makes the same critique of the PSR that

Erlinger discussed for all Shepard documents. He does not provide a specific critique of the

reliability of this PSR. Because Ballinger did not provide a basis for doubt, the district court was

entitled to rely on the PSR to inform itself of the basic facts relating to his predicate crimes.

Thomas, 

.

       We also reject Ballinger’s second argument that this could not be harmless error because

some juries have held that large gaps in time still constitute a single occasion. That argument

misapprehends the nature of the analysis. When courts ask what a reasonable jury would have

done, they are not asking empirically what past juries have done, but whether the evidence “could

rationally lead to a contrary finding with respect to the omitted element.” Neder v. United States,

 (1999). The question is an objective one, and we have already rejected the use of

actual jury decisions to inform the analysis. See Campbell, 

 (“After all, if only a




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No. 23-5579, United States v. Ballinger


theoretical possibility of acquittal were sufficient to defeat demonstrated harmless error, harmless

error could not exist.”); Thomas, 

.

       Consider this issue in a different context: a manifest-weight-of-the-evidence challenge to

a jury verdict. When a party challenges a jury verdict as being against the manifest weight of the

evidence, we ask whether a “reasonable juror could reach the challenged verdict[.]” Debity v.

Monroe Cnty. Bd. Of Educ., 

 (6th Cir. 2025) (quoting Barnes v. Owens-Corning

Fiberglas Corp., 

 (6th Cir. 2000)). We conduct this review after the jury already

reached the disputed verdict. But when undertaking this review, we have never concluded that

because a jury, in fact, reached the challenged verdict, a reasonable jury must be able to reach the

same verdict. Looking to real world juries would defeat the entire inquiry. Ballinger’s argument

to the contrary results in a circularity that no case requires. Instead, as with manifest-weight-of-

the-evidence challenges, we examine the harmless error question through the objective lens of a

reasonable jury. See United States v. Cogdill, 

, 528–29 (6th Cir. 2025). This inquiry

does not turn on the empirics of what a specific jury did in another case, but on what a reasonable

jury would have done here. See United States v. Kerley, 

 (7th Cir. 1988).

                                                III.

       Ballinger does not raise the argument that his burglaries were committed on a single

occasion. And it easy to understand why, applying the factors laid out by the Supreme Court for

a different-occasions inquiry. See United States v. Kimbrough, 

 (6th Cir. 2025)

(citing Wooden v. United States, 

 (2022)). Wooden made clear that what

constitutes an “occasion” is a multi-factored analysis that requires courts to look at timing,

proximity of location, and the character and relationship of the offenses. 

. The




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No. 23-5579, United States v. Ballinger


first two factors—timing and location—will often prove dispositive.1            Durham, 

, at *2 (citing Wooden, 595 U.S. at 369–70). And “[i]n many cases, a single factor—

especially of time or place—can decisively differentiate occasions.” Wooden, 595 U.S. at 369–

70.

       Even with the Supreme Court’s statement that courts “have nearly always treated offenses

as occurring on separate occasions if a person committed them a day or more apart,” the different-

occasions question has proven harder to apply in practice. Wooden, 

. This Court

has published several recent decisions considering harmless error in the Erlinger context. See

Durham, 

, at *3 (collecting cases). For those instances where we held the

Erlinger error to be harmful, the decisions turned, at least in part, on the uncertainty in the record

as to the timing of the predicate offenses. 

 (citing Cogdill, 

; Kimbrough, 

).

       Ballinger points to no uncertainty in the record. Based on his own description of the PSR,

Ballinger had prior convictions for one count of burglary in Bradley County in 2010, for which he

was sentenced in 2011; a burglary in Bradley County on January 4, 2016; a series of five burglaries

in July 2016; and a series of five burglaries in October 2016, with the last one taking place on

October 17. We now must answer whether a reasonable jury could have reasonable doubt that the

three burglaries furthest from each other (2010, January 4, 2016, and October 17, 2016) took place




1
  Ballinger analogized the different occasions question to cases analyzing whether someone had a
common scheme or plan. While a common scheme can be relevant to the character and
relationship of offenses, this only accounts for a single factor in the analysis, and not one that
carries the same weight as time and distance. Campbell, 

.
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No. 23-5579, United States v. Ballinger


on “occasions different from one another.”2 

(e)(1). We hold here that no

reasonable jury could conclude that any two of these burglaries took place on the same occasion.

       In Durham, the “time and space” separating two burglaries “clearly establishe[d] the

offenses occurred on different occasions.” 

, at *4. The burglaries there were

separated by a little over three months and more than 15 miles. 

 Unlike Kimbrough, where at

most nine days separated the two predicate offenses, the months-long gap in Durham was close to

dispositive on its own. Id.; Kimbrough, 

.

       Ballinger’s case is easier. His first predicate crime took place in 2010, followed by a

conviction in Bradley County Criminal Court. His next predicate crime took place a little over

five years later in January 2016. These events were followed by additional burglaries of various

victims, and then a final burglary in October 2016—more than nine months after his January 2016

burglary. Ballinger cites no court decisions finding a harmful error when the timing of the

predicate crimes showed a gap of more than nine months.3 And we have not found any such

precedent.

       Ballinger instead argues that the series of burglaries from January 2016 to October 2016,

could be thought of as a single occasion. But even Ballinger’s recounting of the facts shows why

this fails. He describes the 2016 crimes in groups, with one committed in January, five committed

in July, and five in October, “with the five burglaries within each group spanning just a few days

apart.” Reply Br. 8. This explanation provides the only reasonable way of viewing these crimes—

as three (or more) separate occasions. Durham also explains why the January and October


2
  Ballinger does not appear to dispute that the 2010 burglary was a separate occasion from the
later burglaries, and we agree.
3
  Ballinger instead points to past jury verdicts, but these are unpersuasive for the reasons already
stated.
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No. 23-5579, United States v. Ballinger


burglaries are separate occasions despite the other crimes in between. That case offers the example

of an opening day baseball game as a separate occasion from “a September series finale[.]” 

, at *4 n.5. No reasonable jury would conclude that opening day was the same

“occasion” as the September game, just because similar events took place regularly during the

season. 

       Ballinger’s reading would instead turn the occasions clause into a haven for repeat

offenders. A burglar’s decades-long spree could be a single occasion if the burglar committed his

crimes at regular intervals without getting caught. But a burglar who commits his fewer crimes

more sporadically would face a stiffer punishment as a career criminal despite committing fewer

violent crimes. It cannot be the case that more criminality becomes a shield against armed career

criminal status. This reading undermines the ACCA’s purpose of targeting “those who have

repeatedly committed violent crimes.” Wooden, 

.

       Other circuits have been close to uniform in finding an Erlinger error harmless if months

pass between predicate crimes. See United States v. Brown, 

, 98–99 (4th Cir. 2025);

United States v. Robinson, No. 23-14202, 

, at *2 (11th Cir. June 4, 2025); United

States v. Xavior-Smith, 

 (8th Cir. 2025); United States v. Saunders, No. 23-

6735-cr, 

, at *3 (2d Cir. Oct. 21, 2024); United States v. Butler, 

 (5th Cir. 2024). The only exception to this uniformity comes from Cogdill, 

.

But the gap in Cogdill was from June to September, only around three months, and this represents

the largest gap where a court has found harmful error. 

 The gap between Ballinger’s predicate

crimes spans over three times as long as that in Cogdill. Ballinger’s predicate crimes were

separated by ten months, which strongly (almost dispositively) suggests harmless error.




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No. 23-5579, United States v. Ballinger


       Though the timing of the offenses would likely be sufficient to find harmless error here,

nothing about the character of the offenses suggests a single occasion either. Take for example a

case from the Fourth Circuit. In United States v. Browning, the defendant committed predicate

crimes ranging “anywhere between four weeks and seven years apart, and had no apparent

connection with one another.” No. 23-4038, 

, at *2 (4th Cir. July 2, 2025), pet.

for cert. filed sub nom. Browning v. United States (No. 25-5344). To determine that the offenses

were not connected, the court looked at the names of the victims listed in the PSR. 

 Combining

the gap in time with the lack of repeat victims, the Fourth Circuit had no trouble finding harmless

error. Id.; see Thomas, 

 (noting that different victims weighs toward a finding of

different occasions).

       The same result holds here. As shown in the PSR, Ballinger burglarized nine different

people who have no apparent connection to one another. That fact combined with a large gap in

time between offenses, provides a sufficient basis to conclude that the government has satisfied its

burden to show that the Erlinger error was harmless.4

                                                III.

       Ballinger raises one last point on appeal. He claims (for the first time) that his ACCA

enhanced sentence violates the Double Jeopardy clause. Because Ballinger did not make this

argument before the district court, we apply plain error review.5 Campbell, 

.



4
 Because we find that the Erlinger error was harmless, we do not address Ballinger’s arguments
about the proper remedy for the error.
5
  Ballinger contends that he did make the argument in general terms and so plain error review
should not apply. But he did not make the argument with enough specificity “to give the district
court an opportunity to correct the alleged error.” United States v. Day, 

, 730
(6th Cir. 2018) (quotation omitted). Unlike in United States v. Ehle, Ballinger did not make
“arguments that support a double jeopardy claim[.]” 

 (6th Cir. 2011).
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No. 23-5579, United States v. Ballinger


Under plain error review, Ballinger must show “(1) error, (2) that was obvious or clear, (3) that

affected his substantial rights, and (4) affected the fairness, integrity, or public reputation of his

judicial proceedings.” 

 (citing United States v. Johns, 

 (6th Cir. 2023)).

Ballinger cannot show plain error.

       Ballinger claims that United States v. Bell requires reversal. There, we decided that once

a court accepts a guilty plea, the government cannot proceed to trial on any remaining uncharged

counts because this would raise double jeopardy concerns. United States v. Bell, 

 (6th Cir. 2022). We need not engage in a lengthy analysis under Bell because, as we

stated in Thomas, Bell concerned a “unique factual circumstance” that does not apply in the context

of harmless error review for an Erlinger error. 

. The double jeopardy challenge

in Thomas, almost identical to the one presented here, did not undermine the conclusion that the

Erlinger error was harmless. 

.

       While Thomas did not decide the double jeopardy issue for cases that present a harmful

error, it went far enough to show that any error was not plain and obvious. Without a plain and

obvious error, Ballinger’s argument fails.

                                                 IV.

       Because the Erlinger error in Ballinger’s case was harmless and he did not show that his

double jeopardy argument constituted plain error, we AFFIRM his enhanced sentence under the

ACCA.




Ballinger’s arguments related only to the different occasions analysis and “the Court’s authority
to apply ACCA absent a jury trial.” Sentencing Tr., R-59, PageID 609.
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