Douglas R. Cox, Esquire, Matthew D. McGill, Theodore B. Olson, Gibson, Dunn & Crutcher LLP, Washington, DC, for Plaintiff-Appellant, Mark B. Stern, Alisa B. Klein, Gerard Joseph Sinzdak, Attorneys, Abby Christine Wright, U.S. Department of Justice, (DOJ) Civil Division, Appellate Staff, Washington, DC, for Defendants-Appellees Steven T. Mnuchin, United States Department of the Treasury, David B. Bergman, Howard Neil Cayne, Ian S. Hoffman, Michael A.F. Johnson, Dirk Phillips, Arnold & Porter Kaye Scho-ler LLP, Washington, DC, for Defendants-Appellees Melvin L. Watt, Federal Housing Finance Agency, Pierre H. Bergeron, Attorney, Squire Patton Boggs (US) LLP, Cincinnati, OH, for Amicus Curiae National Black Chamber of Commerce, Thomas Ryan McCarthy, Attorney, Con-sovoy McCarthy PLLC, Arlington, VA, for Amicus Curiae for Appellant Timothy Howard, Dennis Michael Kelleher, Counsel, Better Markets, Inc., Washington, DC, for Amicus Curiae for Appellee Better Markets, Inc., Robert John Rhatigan, Attorney, Steven Gill Bradbury, Robert H. Ledig, Thomas P. Vartanian, Dechert, LLP, Washington, DC, for Amici Curiae for Appellants Independent Community Bankers of America, Association of Mortgage Investors, William M. Isaac, Robert H. Hartheimer, Jerome A. Madden, Esquire, Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, (FDIC) Legal Division, Arlington, VA, for Amicus Curiae for Appellee Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, Jerrold Ganzfried, Holland <& Knight LLP, Washington, DC, for Amicus Curiae for Appellant 60 Plus Association, Inc., Myron Thomas Steele, Attorney, Potter Anderson & Corroon LLP, Dover, DE, for Amicus Curiae for Appellant Center for Individual Freedom, Michael Hugh Krimminger, Cleary Gott-lieb Steen & Hamilton LLP, Washington, DC, for Amicus Curiae for Appellant Investors Unite, Gregory P.N. Joseph, Joseph Hage Aar-onson LLC, New York, NY, for Amici Curiae for Appellants Louise Rafter, Josephine Rattien, Stephen Pattien, Pershing Square Capital Management, LP