delivered the judgment of the court, and the opinion of himself and Justices MILLER, DAVIS, and EIELD; Mr. Justice HUNT concurring in the judgment.

A municipal corporation is a subordinate branch of the domestic government of a State. It is instituted for public purposes only; and has none of the peculiar qualities and characteristics of- a trading corporation, instituted for purposes of private gain, except that of acting in a corporate capacity. Its objects, its responsibilities, and its powers are different. As a local governmental institution, it exists for the benefit of the people within its corporate limits. The legislature invests it with such powers as it deems adequate to the ends to be accomplished. The power of taxation is usually conferred for the purpose of enabling it to raise the necessary funds to carry on the city government and to make such public improvements as it is authorized to make. As this is a power which immediately affects the entire constituency of the municipal body which exercises it, no evil consequences are likely to ensue from its being conferred; although it is not unusual to affix limits to .its exercise for any single year. The power to borrow money is different. When this is exercised the citizens are immediately affected only by the benefit arising from the loan; its burden is not felt till afterwards. Such a power does not belong to a municipal corporation as an incident of its creation. To be possessed it must be conferred by legislation, either express or implied. It does not belong, as a mere matter of course, to local governments to raise loans. Such governments are not created for auy such purpose. Their powers are prescribed by their charters, and those charters provide the means for exercising the powers; and the creation of specific means excludes others. Indebtedness may be incurred to a limited extent in carrying out the objects of the incorporation. Evidences of such indebtedness may be given to the public creditors. But-they must look to and rely on the legitimate mode of raising the funds for its payment. That mode is taxation.

*476Our .system of local-and municipal government is copied, in its genera] features, from that of England. No evidence is adduced to show that the practice of borrowing money has been used by the cities and towns of that country without an act of Parliament authorizing it. We believe no such practice has ever obtained.

Much less can any precedent be found (except of modern date and in this country) for the issue, by local civil authorities, of promissory notes, bills of exchange, and other com? mercial paper. At a period within the memory of man the proposal of such a. thing would have been met with astonishment. The making.of such paper was originally confined to merchants. But its great convenience was the means of extending its use, first to all individuals.,and .afterwards to private corporations having occasion to make promises--to. pay money. Being only themselves responsible -for the paper they issue, no evil consequences can follow sufficient to counterbalance the conveniencies and benefits derived from, its use. ' They know its immunity, in the hands of a, f>onSfide holder, from all defences and equities. Knowing this, if they choose to issue it, no one is injured but them? selves. But if city.and town officials should,have the power thus to bind their constituencies, it is easy to see what abuses might, and probably would, ensue. We know from experi? ence what abuses have been practiced where the power has been conferred. Fraudulent issues, peculations, and embezzlements, and the accumulation of vast amounts of indebtedness, without any corresponding public benefit, have been rendered easy .and secure from merited punishment. The purpose and object of a municipal corporation do not ordinarily require the.exercise of any such power. They are not trading corporations and ought not to become such. They are invested wdth public trusts of a governmental and administrative character; they are the local governments of the people, established by them as their representatives in the management and administration of municipal affairs affecting the peace, good order, and general well-being of the community as a political society and district; and-in? *477vested with power by taxation to raise the revenues necessary for those purposes. The idea that they have the incidental power to issue an unlimited amount of obligations of such a character as to be irretrievably binding on the people, without a shadow of consideration in return, is the growth of a modern misconception of their true object and character. If in the exercise of their important trusts the power to borrow money and to issue bonds or other commercial securities is needed, the legislature can easily confer it under the proper limitations and restraints, and with proper provisions for future repayment. Without such authority it cannot be legally exercised. It is too dangerous a power to be exercised by all municipal bodies indiscriminately, managed as they are by persons whose individual responsibility is not at stake.

Vouchers for money due, certificates of indebtedness for services rendered or for property furnished for the uses of the city, orders or drafts drawn by one city officer upon another, or any other device of the kind, used for liquidating the amounts legitimately due to public creditors, are of course necessary instruments for carrying on the machinery of municipal administration, and for anticipating the collection of taxes. But to invest such documents with the character and incidents of commercial paper, so as to render them in the hands of bond fide holders absolute obligations to pay, however irregularly or fraudulently issued, is an abuse of their true character and purpose. It has the effect of converting a municipal organization into a trading company, and puts it in the power of corrupt officials to involve a political community in irretrievable bankruptcy. No such power ought to exist, and in our opinion no such power does legally exist, unless conferred by legislative enactment, either express or clearly implied.

There are cases, undoubtedly, in which it is proper and desirable that a limited power of this kind should be conferred, as where some extensive public work is to be performed, the expense of which is beyond the immediate resources of reasonable taxatiou, and capable of being fairly *478and justly spread over an extended period of time. Such cases, however, belong to the exercise of legislative discretion, and are to be governed and regulated thereby. Where the power is clearly given, and securities have been issued in conformity therewith, they will stand on the same basis and be entitled to the same privileges as public securities and commercial paper generally.

But where the power has not been given, parties must take municipal orders, drafts, certificates, and other documents of the sort at their peril. Custom and usage may have so far assimilated them to regular commercial paper as to make them negotiable, that is, transferable by' delivery or indorsement. This quality renders them more convenient for the purposes of the holder, and has, undoubtedly, led to the idea so frequently, but, as we think, erroneously, entertained, that they are invested with that other characteristic of commercial paper — freedom from all legal and equitable defences in the hands of a bond fide holder. But every holder of a city order or certificate knows, that to be valid and genuine at all, it must have been issued as a voucher for city indebtedness. It could not be lawfully issued for any other purpose. He must take it, therefore, subject to the risk that it has been lawfully and properly issued. His claim to be a bond fide holder will always be subject to this qualification. The face of the paper itself is notice to him that its validity depends upon the regularity of its issue. The officers of the city have no authority to issue it for any illegal or improper purpose, and their acts cannot create an estoppel against the city itself, its taxpayers, or people. Persons receiving it from them know whether it is issued, and whether they receive it, for a proper purpose and a proper consideration. Of course they are affected by the absence of these essential ingredients; and all subsequent holders take cam onere, and are affected by the same defect.

We consider these principles to be so souud and fundamental as to make it a matter of some surprise that a different view should have beeu taken by some jurists of eminent ability. The cases on the subject are conflicting and irreoon*479cilable. It could not serve an}7 useful purpose to make an elaborate review of them. We have endeavored clearly and explicitly, though briefly, to state the views which we entertain, and in accordance with which we think the questions in this case must be decided.

Much stress has been laid upon the decision of the Supreme Court of Tennessee, in the case of Adams v. The Memphis and Little Rock Railroad, Company.* The mayor and common council of the city of Memphis, under a charter similar to that of Nashville, had mortgaged certain property belonging to the city, called the navy-yard property, which had been given to it by the United States for the use and benefit of the city, to secure the payment of $300,000 of the bonds of the Memphis and Little Rock Railroad Company. The road of this company extended from a point opposite the city to Little Rock, in Arkansas, and was deemed of great advantage to the city of Memphis. The rents and profits of this property were also appropriated by the mortgage to the payment of the interest on the bonds thus secured, and to the raising of a sinking fund to meet-the principal when due; and authority was given to the trustees of the mortgage to enter and lease, or sell in case of default in the payment of interest or principal. The court held that the general power contained in the city charter to sell, lease, and dispose of the property of the corporation for the use and benefit of the city, authorized this transaction; and that the purpose for which the mortgage was given was a proper corporation purpose within the meaning of the charter. Other doctrines were propounded in the opinion of the court in reference to the implied powers of municipal corporations, which were not necessary to the decision of the case, and need not be adverted to here. The decision itself does not, in our apprehension, necessarily conflict with the views which we have stated above. We proceed, therefore, to the consideration of the particular facts of this case¿

*480The eighteen checks purchased of the treasurer of the board of education will be first considered. In the absence of jn’oof to the contrary, it may be presumed that they were properly issued at their inception. Evidence was offered by the defendants, it is true, tending to show that they had not beeu issued in accordance with the laws and ordinances of the city. But the view which we have taken of their reissue and sale by the treasurer of the board of education, renders it unnecessary to consider that aspect of the case. It is conceded that they had been received by the collector in payment of taxes due to the city. As evidences of indebtedness, where this was done, they were fundus offido. They were paid and satisfied. They ceased to have any validity. They could not be reissued without the authority of the city council. Certainly the treasurer of the board of education had no authority thus to reissue them or sell them. Such an authority would render him controller and dispenser of the city credit. If he had authority to sell them for one price, he had authority to sell them for another; and there is no limit to which he would thus have power to involve the city in debt. Nor can the purchaser waive his claim to recover the amount of the cheeks, and demand a reimbursement of the money which he actually paid. Considered as a money transaction, and not as a purchase of the paper, it would amount to a loan and borrowing of money on the city account. And where can authority be found for the treasurer of the board of education to borrow money on account of the city? The city council may, no doubt, assume the responsibility of the transaction and make proper provision, as perhaps in equity ought to be done, for the repayment of the money so advanced. But the transaction had not the support of legal authority, and hence the money cannot, be recovered in this action.

The remaining check of $1000, purchased from Sax, was pledged or hypothecated, with fifteen others of like amount, to Sax as collateral security for a loan of $12,000, payable in four months. This loim was secured by a note given at the same time, which recited the pledge or hypothecation of the *481sixteen cheeks, and gave Sax power to sell them if the note was not paid at maturity. Sax, instead of waiting to see if the note would be paid, sold the checks thus pledged, or at least the one in question, within a week after the loan was effected. This, of course, was not only an unauthorized, it was a dishonest transaction, and could give no title to the purchaser as against the city. In the first place the finance committee, or its chairman, had no legal authority thus to pledge the evidences of city indebtedness and give to the pledgee the power of selling the same for any price he could get. In'-this way an untold amount of debt could be piled up against the city without any adequate consideration received therefor, and all the evil consequences before adverted to would be liable to follow the exercise of such a power. This very instance forcibly illustrates the mischievous results that would follow from inferring an incidental power in a municipal corporation to issue commercial securities. The check in question has the same form and appearance as all the other checks which the city officers are in the habit of issuing for ordinary city indebtedness. It must be subject to the same general rule of being valid or otherwise, according as it was properly or improperly, lawfully or unlawfully, issued. And the subsequent holder, whether purchaser or otherwise, takes it with all the original defects of title.

The judgment must be reversed, and a venire de novo awarded.

I concur in the judgment of this court reversing the judgment at the circuit, and remanding the case for further proceedings. I do not, however, concur in some of the grounds upon which the reversal is placed in the opinion delivered by Mr. Justice Bradley, and as my concurrence is necessary to the rendering of the judgment, there is a manifest propriety in an expression of the grounds of my concurrence.

I am of the opinion that the judge erred in charging and deciding that if the checks “are, upon their face, overdue *482at the time of such sale (that is their reissue and sale), they will be in law payable on demand, and are not to be deemed dishonored so as to let in defences between the company and a subsequent holder of the paper until after the lapse of a reasonable time after their reissue for the making of such demand.” All of the checks in question had been presented for payment. Payment was not made, but the time of presentation was noted in each instance, and interest was allowed upon the check from that date. The presenta-, tion and neglect to pay had been made in some instances nearly four months before such purchase, and the time of ¡such presentation was noted upon the check by the city treasurer, and it bore interest from that date. A check requires no presentment for acceptance as distinguished from presentment for payment. If once presented and payment refused, it is dishonored.* To constitute a bond fide holder of a note or check it is necessary — 1. That it should have been received before maturity; 2. That a valuable consideration should have been paid for it; and 8. That it should have been taken without knowledge of the defences sought to be made.

Whatever defences could properly be made to these checks in the hands of the original holder could be made while they were in the plaintiff’s hands. He was not a bond fide holder.

Evidence to show fraud or corruption, or want of authority in their issue, should have been received at the circuit, and in excluding the offers made on that subject and in the charge in reference to the evidence given, I think there was error. Thus, the Sax check, it was alleged, had been issued without authority, hypothecated to secure a note of the city made without authority, and sold in violation of the terms of the hypothecation. It was open to this defence in the hands of th explain tiff.

In the case of another check it was offered to be proved that it was issued without authority and upon a corrupt contract, but the evidence was excluded.

*483The court in another place charged the jury that “if it is the usage to reissue the securities by sale in the market, they will, when so sold, be obligatory upon the corporation.” I cannot think that it is lawful for a municipal corporation to issue its checks, pay them, reissue them, and repeat this operation as often as its convenience requires. This comes too near the character of a bank of issue and deposit

In the particulars following, my views are different from those expressed in the opinion of Justice Bradley.

I hold it to be well established by the authorities that a municipal corporation may borrow money for the legitimate use of the corporation, and that it may issue its notes for the same unless expressly prohibited by its charter or by statute from so doing. The proposition that it cannot borrow money, unless by its charter expressly authorized to do so, is, in my opinion, unsustained by sound authority.*

That the securities thus issued by municipal corporations are subject to the rules of commercial law when held by a bo)iS fide holder has been repeatedly held by this court. Every recent volume of its reports contains authorities to this effect. The authorities of the State of Tennessee sustain these general views.†

Checks of the city were issued for the payment of particular debts, and when paid should, no doubt, under ordinary circumstances, have been cancelled. A reissue of a paid check is an extraordinary proceeding. If done by an officer without the authority of the common council, it is a gross violation of duty. If with that authority, it is a loose practice, liable to abuse. Whether such reissue would be an act of positive illegality, ultra vires merely, or a bad practice simply, it is not necessary to decide. In neither case can the city repudiate the transaction. It is upon this point *484chiefly that I desire to express my dissent from the opinion just delivered. As to all the checks in question, the record shows that they were paid over by the collector of city taxes to the treasurer of the board of education, that they were by him sold to McCrory, at eighty cents on the dollar, and that the proceeds of such sales were applied to the uses of the city by an immediate payment of the wages due to the' teachers in the public schools of the city. The city received this money upon the reissue of its checks. So far as McCrory is concerned, or the plaintiff* who succeeds to his rights, the city now has the money in its treasury.

It is a general rule, applicable to all persons and corporations, and is a dictate of plain honesty, that whoever, knowing the facts of the case, retains and uses money received by an agent for his account, cannot- repudiate the contract on which it is received.* Putting this transaction most strongly against the plaintiff-, by assuming that this reissue was not ultra vires merely, but was positively prohibited by law, the city is still responsible to the holder of the checks for the money it has received and still retains. Conceding the illegal contract to be void, as forbidden by the legislature, it is to be remembered that the prohibition is upon the city only, and not upon the person dealing with it; the illegality is on the part of the city, and not of the person receiving the checks. The contract may well be void as to the city, and its officers punishable for the offence of making it, and yet it may stand in favor of innocent persons not within the prohibition. Such was the decision in Tracy v. Talmage,† in Curtis v. Leavitt,‡ and in The Oneida Bank v. The Ontario Bank.§ The latter case was briefly this: The general banking law of New York prohibited the issuance by a bank of a certificate of deposit payable on time. The cashier of the Ontario Bank received $5000 in cash from one Perry, and delivered to him a certificate of deposit post-dated about four weeks, for the purpose of raising funds for the bank. *485This draft Perry transferred to the Oneida Bank, who brought suit upon it. It was held, assuming this draft to be void, that the party making the contract could reject the security and recover the money or value which he advanced on receiving it. It was held further, that the right of action to recover this money passed to the Oneida Bank upon the transfer of the certificate to them. The plaintiff recovered the money advanced to the bank upon the illegal certificate. Both of these principles were held with equal distinctness in Tracy v. Talmage, supra.

They seem to me to be decisive of the right of the plaintiff' to recover upon the checks, regarding them in their most unfavorable aspect, the amount of money advanced to and yet held by the city.

For the reasons thus presented, I concur in the reversal of the judgment.

Judgment reversed, and a

Venire de novo awarded.

dissenting:

I dissent from the opinion and judgment in this case, chiefly upon two grounds: (1) Because I think the opinion restricts quite too much the powers of municipal corporations; and (2), because the doctrines of the opinion, as applied to negotiable securities of a commercial character, are repugnaut to the well-settled rules of law established by the repeated decisions of this court.

Note.

At the same time with the preceding case, and by the same counsel, was argued the case of

The Mayor v. Lindsey.

In error to the same Circuit Court, for the Middle District of Tennessee. In this case Lindsey sued the mayor of Nashville *486on certain checks, similar in all respects, in form and inception, to the check issued to Julius Sax, and mentioned more particularly supra, p. 472. The checks now sued on had been pledged as collateral security for a loan of less amount than the cheeks pledged, and were sold soon after being pledged, and before the loan fell due; the transaction being effected by the chairman of the finance committee of the city council without other au-thority. Such at least was the tendency of the evidence, and the judge charged substantially as in the preceding case of Ray.

Venire de novo.